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THE
NATURAL HISTORY
THE VARIETIES OF MAN
THE
NATURAL HISTORY
THE VARIETIES OF MAN.
ROBERT GORDON LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S.,
LATE FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE ;
ONE OF THE VICE-PRESIDENTS OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, LONDON
CORRESPOND!™ MEMBER TO THE ETHNOLOGICAL 8OCIETV,
NEW YORK, ETC.
LONDON:
JOHN VAN VOORST,_PATERNOSTER ROW.
M.D.CCCL.
'TTi
til,
LONDON:
Printed by S. & J. BRNTLEY and HENKY FLEY,
Bangor House, Shoe Lane.
TO
EDWIN NORRIS, ESQ.,
OF THB ROTAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,
TO WHOSE VALUABLE INFORMATION AND SUGGESTIONS
MANY OF THE STATEMENTS AND OPINIONS OF THE PRESENT VOLUME
OWE THEIR ORIGIN,
rfir follclmmj iJmjw are friGrnkir,
BY HIS FRIEND,
THE AUTHOR.
London, July 25th, 1850.
PREFACE.
IF the simple excellence of a book were a sufficient
reason for making it the only one belonging to the
sciences which it professed to illustrate, few writers
would be desirous of attempting a systematic work
upon the Natural History of their species, after the
admirable Physical History of Mankind, by the late and
lamented Dr. Prichard, — a work which even those who
are most willing to defer to the supposed superior at-
tainments of Continental scholars, are not afraid to
place on an unapproached eminence in respect to both
our own and other countries. The fact of its being
the production of one who was at one and the same
time a physiologist amongst physiologists, and a scholar
amongst scholars, would have made it this ; since the
grand ethnological desideratum required at the time of
its publication, was a work which, by combining the
historical, the philological, and the anatomical methods,
should command the attention of the naturalist, as well
as of the scholar. Still it was a work of a rising rather
than of a stationary science ; and the very stimulus
which it supplied, created and diffused a spirit of in-
vestigation, which — as the author himself would, above
all men, have desired — rendered subsequent investiga-
tions likely to modify the preceding ones. A subject
.
Vlll PREFACE.
that a single book, however encyclopedic, can repre-
sent, is scarcely a subject worth taking up in earnest.
Besides this, there are two other reasons of a more
special and particular nature for the present addition
to the literature of Ethnology.
I. For each of the great sections of our species, the
accumulation of facts, even in the eleventh hour, has
out-run the anticipations of the most impatient ; in-
deed so rapidly did it take place during the latter part
of Dr. Prichard's own life-time, that the learning which
he displays in his latest edition, is, in its way, as admir-
able as the bold originality exhibited in the first sketch
of his system, published as early as 1821 ; rather in
the shape of a university thesis than of a full and com-
plete production. Thus —
For Asia, there are the contributions of Rosen to the
philology of Caucasus ; without which (especially the
grammatical sketch of the Circassian dialects) the pre-
sent writer would have considered his evidence as dis-
proportionate to his theory. Then, although matters
of Archaeology rather than of proper Ethnography, come
in brilliant succession, the labours of Botta, Layard,
and Rawlinson, on Assyrian antiquity, to which may
be added the bold yet cautious criticism and varied
observations of Hodgson, illustrating the obscure
Ethnology of the Sub-Himalayan Indians, and pre-
eminently confirmatory of the views of General Briggs
and others as to the real affinities of the mysterious
hill-tribes of Hindostan. Add to these much new matter
in respect to the Indo-Chinese frontiers of China, Siam,
and the Burmese Empire ; and add to this the result
of the labours of Fellowes, Sharpe, and Forbes, upon
the monuments and language of Asia Minor. I do
PREFACE. IX
not say that any notable proportion of these latter in-
vestigations have been incorporated in the present
work ; their proper place being in a larger and more
discursive work. Nevertheless, they have helped to de-
termine those results to the general truth of which
the present writer commits himself.
Africa has had a bright light thrown over more than
one of its darkest portions by Krapff for the eastern
coast, by Dr. Beke for Abyssinia, by the Tutsheks for
the Gallas and Tumalis, by the publications of the
Ethnological Society of Paris, and the researches of
the American and English Missionaries for many other
of its ill-understood and diversified populations, espe-
cially those to the south and west.
The copious extract from Mr. Jukes's Voyage of the
Fly, show at once how much has been added ; yet, at
the same time, how much remains to be learned in
respect to our knowledge of New Guinea ; whilst the
energy of the Rajah Brooke has converted Borneo, from
a terra incognita, into one of the clear points of the
ethnological world.
In South America, although many of the details of
Sir Robert Schomburgk were laid before the world
previous to the publication of the fifth volume of the
Physical History, many of them, though now published,
were at that time still in manuscript.
The great field, however, has been the northern half
of the New World ; and the researches which have
illustrated this have illustrated Polynesia and Africa
as well. What may be called the personal history of
the United States Exploring Expedition, was published
in 1845. The greatest mass, however, of philological
data ever accumulated by a single enquirer — the con-
X PREFACE.
tents of Mr. Hales's work on the philology of the voyage
— is recent. The areas which this illustrates are the
Oregon territory and California ; and the proper com-
plements to it are Pickering's work on the Races of
Man, the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, and
the last work of the venerable Gallatin on the Semi-
civilized nations of America.
Surely these are elements pregnant with modifying
doctrines !
II. For each of the great sections of our species, the
present classification presents some differences, which if
true, are important. Whether such novelties (so to
say) are of a value at all proportionate to that of the
fresh data, is a matter for the reader rather than the
writer to determine — the latter is satisfied with indi-
cating them. The extension of the Seriform group, so
as to include the Caucasian Georgians and Circassians on
the one side, and the Indians of Hindostan on the other ;
the generalization of the term Oceanic so as to include
the Australians and Papuans — the definitude given to
the Micronesian origin of the Polynesians — the new
distribution of the Siberian Samb'eids, Yeniseians, and
Yukahiri — the formation of the class of Peninsular
Mongolidse, so as to affiliate the Americans (previously
recognised as fundamentally of one and the same
stock) with, the north- eastern Asiatics — the sequences
in the way of transition from the Semitic Arab to the
Negro — the displacement of the Celtic nations, and
the geographical extension given to the original Slavo-
nians, are points for which the present writer is
responsible ; not, however, without previous minute
investigation. The proofs thereof lie in tables of vocabu-
laries, analyses of grammars, and ethnological reasonings,
PREFACE. XI
far too elaborate to be fit for aught else than a series
of special monographs ; not for a general view of the
human species, as classified according to its varieties.
This classification is the chief 'end of his work ; and,
more than anything else, it is this attempt at classifica-
tion which has given a subordinate position to certain
other departments of his subject. Where such is not
the case, one of three reasons stands in its place to
account for the matters enlarged upon, apparently at
the expense of others.
1 . The novelty of the information acquired.
2. The extent to which the subject has been pre-
viously either overlooked or thrown in the back-ground.
3. And, finally (though perhaps the plea is scarcely
a legitimate one), the degree of attention which has
been paid to the particular question by its expositor.
LONDON, July 25th, 1850.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Notice of the chief works either used as authorities, and not particularly
quoted, or else illustrative of certain portions of the subject.
Arnold. — History of Rome — Early Italian nations.
Adelung (Vater). — The Mithridates — Generally.
Baer's Beytrage, &c. — For Russian America.
Bartlett. — Report upon the present state of Ethnology. New York.
Beke. — Papers in the Transactions of the Philological and Geographical
Societies — Abyssinia.
Bopp. — Vergleichende Grammatik, &c., other works.
Biooke (Keppell and Marryat). — Borneo.
Brown. — Papers in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, iv. 2.
— The tribes about Manipur.
Balbi. — Atlas Ethnologique.
Bunsen. — ^Egypt's Place in Universal History.
Catlin. — American Indians.
Crawford's. — Embassy to Ava, and Papers read before the Ethnological
Society and the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
Dennis. — Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria.
D'Orbigny. — Homme Americain — South America. The chief authority.
Ellis. — History of Madagascar.
Erman. — Reise in Siberieri.
Fellowes, Sir C. — Travels in Lycia.
Forbes (and Spratt's), Professor E. —Ditto.
Gaimard (and Quoy). — Zoology of the Voyage de 1'Astrolabe — The
Papuas, Micronesians, &c.
Gallatin. — Papers in the Archseologia Americana, and the Transactions
of the Ethnological Society, New York.
XIV BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Grimm. — Deutsche Grammatik, Deutsche Sprache, &c.
Grote. — History of Greece — Pelasgians and other early nations.
Hodgson. — On the Kocch, Bodo, and Dhimal. Papers in the Transac-
tions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal — Indispensable for the Sub-
Himalayan Indians.
Hales. — Philology of the United States Exploring Expedition — Oregon,
California, Polynesia, Australia, Africa.
Humboldt. A. — Personal Narrative — Indians of the Orinoco.
Humboldt, W. — Uber die Kawisprachi — Java, and the influence of the
Indian upon the Malay stock, &c.
Jukes. — Voyage of the Fly — New Guinea,
Kemble. — The Anglo-Saxons in England.
KrapfF. — MS. vocabularies of the Pocomo and other languages of
Eastern Africa.
Klaproth. — Asia Polyglotta, Sprachatlas, &c. — The chief authorities
for Caucasus and Siberia.
Lesson. — Mammologie. — Classification of Man as a Mammal. Zoology
of the Uranie and Physicienne — Micronesia, &c.
Leyden. — Asiatic Researches — For the Indo-Chinese Languages.
Layard. — Antiquities of Assyria.
Miiller. — Die Ugrische Volker — The Ugrian Mongolida?.
Marsden's Sumatra.
Mallat. — Description des Isles Philippines.
Morton. — Crania Americana, Crania ./Egyptiaca, &c.
Newbold. — Malacca Settlements.
Niebuhr. — Roman History — Ancient Nations of Italy, Etruscans,
Pelasgi.
Newman (Francis). — Berber Grammar. Paper in the Philological
Transactions. Hebrew Monarchy.
Prichard. — Physical History of Mankind. Eastern origin of the Celtic
Nations.
Prescott. — History of Mexico, Peru.
Pickering. — The Races of Men. See Hales and Wilkes.
Quoy (and Gaimard).— Zoology of the Astrolabe— Papuans and Micro-
nesians.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. XV
Retzius. — Papers in the Literary Transactions of Stockholm.
Rosen. — On the Languages of Caucasus,
Riihs.— Finnland und Seine Einwohner.
Raffles. — History of Java.
Renouard. — Abstract of Spix and Martius on the Indians of Brazil.
Transactions of the Royal Geographical Society.
Ruppell. — Reise in Kordofan.
Schomburgk, Sir R. — Transactions of the Geographical, Ethnological
and Philological Societies — British Guiana.
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. — (Squier and Davis.) — North
American Archeology.
Scouler, Dr. — Papers in the Transactions of the Geographical and Ethno-
logical Societies. — Oregon and the Hudson's Bay Territory.
Stockfleth. — Om Finnerne — Om Quanerne. — The Laplanders, and Fin-
landers of Scandinavia.
Sharpe. — History of ^Egypt.
Sharpe (Dan.). — On the Lycian Inscriptions — Transactions of the Philo-
logical Society.
Spratt (and Forbes) Travels in Lycia.
Transactions of the Ethnological Societies of London — Paris — New
York.
Wilson, H. H. — Ariana Antiqua, &c.
Wilkes. — United States Exploring Expedition.
Zeuss. — Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
FIG. PAGE
1. A Yakut. From Von Middendorf ( Travels in Siberia) . 1
2. Skull of an Eskimo. From Prichard's Physical History of
Mankind ....... 6
3. Skull of one of Napoleon's Guards killed at Waterloo. Ibid. 5
4. Skull of a Creole Negro. . . . . Ibid. 6
5. A Yakut Female. From Von Middendorf . . 94
6. 7. Papuan skulls. From the Voyage sur L'Uranie et La
Physicienne . . . . . .213
8. A Native of Van Diemen's Land. Drawn by Campbell De
Morgan, Esq., from a cast belonging to the Ethnological
Society ...... 245
9. Samoeid Man. From Von Middendorf . . . 268
10. Ground-plan of embankments in Ohio. From the Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge . . . 360
11. Ground-plan, &c., in Wisconsin . . . Ibid. 361
12. Antiquities from the Tumuli of the Valley of the Mississippi.
Ibid 362
13. Casa Grande. From a Treatise of Mr. Squier's upon the
Ethnology of California and New Mexico . . 388
14. A Patagonian Female. From a Treatise of Professor Retzius
on the Patagonians . . . . .417
15. Fac-simile of a Vei MS., in the possession of the Royal
Geographical Society, taken by E. Norriss, Esq., F.A.S. . 474
16. Arrow-headed Persian character. From Rawlinson. Trans-
actions of Asiatic Society . . . 522
17. Tuarick Alphabet. From Richardson . . . 523
18. Specimen of the Cherokee syllabic alphabet. From a Cherokee
Newspaper . . . . . .524
19. Sub-Himalayan Indians. From Hodgson's Kocch, Bodo, and
Dhimal • . 548
CONTENTS.
Explanation of Terms ...... 1
Terms descriptive of differences in the way of physical confor-
mation . ...... 2
Typical, sub-typical, transitional, quasi-transitional . 7
Terms descriptive of differences in the way of language . . 9
Terms descriptive of differences in social civilization . 12
The primary varieties of the human race . 13
PART I.
MONGOLIDjE ..... 15—462
A.
ALTAIC MONGOLID.E .... 15 — 106
Seriform Altaic Mongolian . . . . 15 — 60
Chinese ...... 16
Tibetans ...... 18
Anamese ..... 20
Siamese ...... 21
Kambogians ..... 22
Burmese ...... 23
Mon ...... 23
Si-Fan . . . . . 24
Miaout-se ..... 25
Lolos, &c. . . . . . 25 — 34
Garo ...... 34
Brown's Tables ..... 36
Dhimal and Bodo .... 37- 53
Tribes of Sikkim and Nepaul ... 53
Antiquity of the Chinese civilization — how far indis-
putable ...... 55— 60
XX CONTENTS.
PAGE
Turanian Altaic Mongolida . . . 61 — 106
Mongolians ...... 63 — 73
Tongus ...... 74
• Turks 75— 95
Ugrians ...... 95—106
Voguls . . . . . 96
Permians ..... 97
Tcheremiss . . . . . 99
Finlanders ..... 99
Esthouians . . ... . 101
Laplanders ..... 101
Hungarians ..... 101
B.
DlOSOURIAN MONGOLIDJB .... 107 128
Georgians . . . . . . 112
Lesgians, Mizjeji, Iron . . 115
Ossetic grammar . . . . 116
Circassians . . . . . 119
Circassian grammar . . . . 120
Table of comparison between the Dioscurian and
Seriform languages . . . 123
C.
OCEANIC MONOOLIDJS ..... 129 — 264
Amphinesians . . ;^ . . 133 — 210
Protonesians .... . 133—183
Malacca . . . . . 133
Sumatra ...... 137
Mythology of the Battas . - . . ,4 143
Malay characteristics .... 147
Java ...... 152
The Teng'ger Mountaineers . . . 153
Bali, &c. ..... 158
Languages between Sumbawa and Australia . 158
Timor . . ' .-""'. . . 160
Timor Laut . . ' . . . 161
The Serwatty and Ki Islands . 161
The Arru Isles . . . 162
Borneo .... . 163—169
Celebes -,,..' ". . 169
Bugis constitution .... 170
CONTENTS. XXI
PAGE
The Moluccas, &c. . . . . . 175
The Philippines ..'... 176
Philippine Blacks .... 177
languages .... 178
Extent of Hindu influences . . . 178
Remains of original mythology . . . 179
Formosa ...... 182
Polynesians ...... 183—210
Microncsians ...... 186 — 191
Lord North's Island .... 186
Sonsoral, The Pelews . . . . 187
The Mariannes .... 188
Carolines ...... 189
Isles of Brown, &c. .... 190
Proper Polynesians ..... 191 — 210
The mythology. .... 191 — 195
Navigators' Isles ..... 195
Tonga group ..... ibid.
Tahitian group . . . . . 196
Easter Island .... 197
The Marquesas ..... 198
Sandwich Islands .... 198
New Zealand, &c. .... 203
Tikopia ..... 204
Questions connected with the Ethnology of Polynesia 205 — 210
Kelanonesians ...... 210 — 264
Papuan Branch . . . . . 211—229
Waigiu ...... 212
New Guinea ..... 213
Vanikoro, &c. . . . . 222
Erromango ..... 224
Tanna, Annatom ... . 225
New Caledonia . . . ibid.
The Fiji Islanders ... 226
Australian Branch ..... 229—246
Australians ... . 229—245
Tasmanians . . . 244
Andaman Islanders . . 246
Nicobarians ..... 247
Origin of the Kekenonesians . 250
Polynesians . 253
Ceremonial Language . . . 262
XX11 CONTENTS.
D.
PAGE
HYPERBOREAN MONGOLIDA; . . . 265—272
Samoeids . ,- . . . . . 266
Yeniseians . . . . . 268
Yukuhiri . . . . . . 269
Table of languages .... 270 272
E.
PENINSULAR MONQOLID^; . . . 273 286
Koreans ..... 275
Japanese ..... £77
Aino ••.... 281
Koriaks ..... 283
Kamskadales . . . 285
AMERICAN MONGOLID.E . . . 287 460
Eskimo . . . 288
Koluch .... 294
Doubtful Koluches ... 297
The Nehanni . . . 298
Haidah, &c. . . . 300
Nutkans . . . OQI
Athabaskans . . . ... 302—310
Chippewyans, &c. . „ 393
Hare Indians . . ^-^
Dog-ribs . . . . _ ibid
Carriers . . . 3Q4
Sikani . . . 3Qg
Southern Athabaskans . . 303
Table of languages ..... 308—310
Tsihaili . . t _ 310—316
The Salish . 31 -,
Kutanis . . 31/5
Chinuks . . . 3J7 300
The Lingua Franca . . .- 321
Sahaptin, &c. . . ... 323—328
Algonkins . . . 32g
Bethuck . . . . < 330
Shyennes . . . ibid
Blackfoots . . ooo
Iroquois
CONTENTS. XX111
PAGE
Sioux ...... 333
Catawba, Woccoon - . . . 334
Extinct tribes . . . . ibid.
Cherokees . . . -. • . 337
Choctahs . . . . . . . ibid.
Uche, Coosada, Alibamons ... . . 338
Caddos . . . . . . ibid.
Value of Classes . . . . 339
The Natchez ..... 340
Taensas, &c. . . . . 341
Ahnenin, Arrapahoes . . . JJS 344
Riccarees and Pawnees .... ibid.
The Paduca areas ..... 345
Wihinast . . 346
Shoshonis, Cumanches . . . ., 347
Apaches . . . . . 348
Texian tribes . . . > . . 349—351
The unity or non-unity of the American populations 352 — 380
Opinions . .... 352
Vater's remark .... 354
Polysynthetic — Philological paradox . . 356
Grounds for disconnecting the Eskimo . 357
Peruvians . ibid.
Archaeology of the Valley of the Mississippi . 359 — 362
American characteristics . . . 363
languages . . . . 365—380
Tables for simple comparison . . 366
indirect .... 371
Paucity of general terms . . . 375
Numerals ..... 376
Verb-substantive .... 378
Negative points of agreement . . ibid.
Positive .... 379
The Californias .. . . . 380—395
Description of a Casa Grande . . . 388
Pimos Indians .... 390
Coco-Maricopas ..... 394
New Mexico ..... 395 — 398
Tarahumara ..... 398
Casa Grande ..... 399
Tepeguana, &c. . . . . . 400
Otomi . . ; . . . 403—408
Supposed monosyllabic character of the language 404
Tables 405
XXIV CONTENTS.
PAGE
Mexico . .. . . . 408
The Maya . . 410
Indians of the Isthmus . . . . 411
Andes (western) . . . 412 — 414
Moluche, Puelche, Huilliche . . 415
Conventional ethnological centre . . 418
Charruas , . . . ( . 420
Indians of Moxos .... 424
Chiquitos .... 425
Chaco .... 428
Brazil (not Guarani) . . . 429
Warows ..... 438
Tarumas . . . . . ; 439
Wapityan, &c. .... ibid.
Atures ...... 440
Maypure . . . . . 441
Achagua, Yarura, Ottamacas . . . 442
Chiricoas . . . . « ibid.
Guarani ...... 413
Caribs ...... 445
Their supposed North American origin . 447
Indians of the Eastern Andes . . 448
Yuracares . . . . . . ibid.
Apolistas ..... ibid.
Northern Indians of the Eastern Andes . 450
Reasons for not separating the Eskimo from the other
Americans ..... 452
Reasons for not separating the Peruvians, &c. 454
Classification of D'Orbigny . . . 459
G
INDIAN MONGOLID.*;. . . . . 461—468
Tamulians . . . . . 462
Pulindas ..... 463
Rajmahali . . . - . 464
Brahui ..... ibid.
Indo-Gangetie Indians . . . 465
Purbutti ..... 466
Cashmirian . . ... 467
Cingalese . . . . .. 468
Maldivians . ibid.
CONTENTS. XXV
PAGE
ATLANTID^E . ... 469
A.
NEGRO ATLANTIDJE ..... 471
Woloffs . ...... 473
Sereres ...... ibid.
Serawolli ...... ibid.
Mandingos ..... ibid.
The Vei alphabet . 474
Felups, &c. ..... 475
Fantis, &c. ...... 476
The Gha ...... ibid.
Whidah, Maha, Benin tribes .... 477
Grebo, &c. ...... 478
The Yarriba ...... 479
The Tapua ..... ibid.
Haussa ....... ibid.
Fulahs ...... 480
Cumbri ....... ibid.
Sungai ...... 481
Kissour ....... ibid,
Bornu, &c. ...... ibid-.
Begharmi ...... ibid-.
Mandara ...... ibid.
Mobba ....... 483
Furians ...... ibid.
Koldagi ...... ibid.
Shilluk, &c. ..... ibid.
Qamamyl ...... 484
Dallas, <&c. ...... ibid.
Tibboo ....... 485
Gongas ...... ibid.
B.
KAFFRR ATLANTID^E .... 487 — 494
Peculiarities of Kaffre language . . 487
Western Kaffres ..... 489
Southern Kaffres ..... 490
Eastern Kaffres ..... ibid.
Kazumbi, Mazenas, &c. . . . 491
Pocoma, Wanika, Wakamba, &c. . . . 492
XXVI CONTENTS.
C.
PAGE
HOTTENTOT ATLANTID* .... 495 — 498
Hottentots ... . . • 496
Saabs ... 497
Dammaras ..... ibid.
Overlapped peripheries
D.
NILOTIC ATLANTID.E ..... 499 — 506
Gallas . . 499
Agows and Falasha . . . 500
Nubians ..... ibid.
Bishari ..... 501
The M'Kuafi, &c. . * ibid.
E.
AMAZIUGH ATLANTID.E .... 507, 508
F.
./EGYPTIAN ATLANTIC.*; .... 509, 510
G.
SEMITIC ATLANTID^E .... 511
Syrians ...... ibid.
Syriac literary influence . . . 512
Assyrians ...*.. ibid.
Babylonians ..... ibid.
Beni Terah ...... 513
Edomites . 514
Beni Israel ..... ibid.
Samaritans ..... ibid.
Jews ...... ibid.
Arabs ...... 515
.^Ethiopians . . .- 517
Canaanites, &c. . . . >r . 518
Malagas! ...... 519
Question to the single origin of alphabetical writing . 520
On the accumulation of certain climatologic influences 524
CONTENTS. XXV11
IAPETID.E 527
A.
OCCIDENTAL IAPETID.E .... 528
Kelts . . . . . . ibid.
B.
INDO-GEKMANIC IAPETID^E . . . 531
European Class . . . . 531 — 543
Goths ..... 531—535
Teutons ..... 532—534
Mosso-Goths .... ibid.
High Germans .... 533
Franks ..... ibid.
Low Germans .... 534
Batavians .... ibid.
Saxons ..... ibid.
Frisians .... ibid.
Scandinavians ..... ibid.
Sannatians ..... 535 — 541
Lithuanians ..... 536
Slavonians ..... 538
Russians ..... ibid.
Servians .... ibid.
Illyrians ..... 539
Bohemians (T'sheks) . . . ibid.
Poles ..... ibid.
Serbs .... ibid.
Slavonians of the Germanic frontier . ibid.
Mediterranean Indo-Germans . . 541
Hellenic branch . . . ibid.
Italian branch .... 542
Iranian class ..... 543
The Sanskrit language . . . ibid-.
Population of Persia . . . 546
Siaposh .... 547
Lugmani ..... ibid.
Dardoh .... ibid.
Wokhan . ibid.
XXV111 CONTENTS.
PAGE
Armenians . . .
Iberians
Finnic hypothesis . • •
Albanians . • • ibid-
Pelasgi . . • •: .
Etruscans
Populations of Asia Minor . . 555
Hybridism . . . ibid.
PART II.
Apophthegms on the nature of the Science of Ethnology 559 — 566
NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN,
Fig. 1.
INTRODUCTION.
PREVIOUS to entering upon the details connected with
the varieties, and affinities of the human species, it is
advisable to explain the meaning and full import of cer-
tain terms that are likely to be of frequent occurrence. It
is only, however, so far as an explanation is required, that
2 INTRODUCTION.
any remarks will be made. The questions themselves,
although necessary and preliminary, are well capable of
being isolated from the properly descriptive portions of
the subject, and of forming separate sections of ethnolo-
gical science ; a separation which is fully justified by
their great range and extent.
A. Terms descriptive of differences in the way of physical
conformation. — If we were to take three individual spe-
cimens of the human species, which should exhibit three
of the most important differences, they would, I think, be
— 1 . A Mongolian, or a Tungus, from Central or Siberian
Asia ; 2, a Negro from the Delta of the Niger ; and 3, a
European from France, Germany, or England. At the
first view the Negro would seem the most unlike of the
three ; and, perhaps, he would do so after a minute and
careful scrutiny. Still, the characteristic and differential
features of the Asiatic would be of a very remarkable
kind. In the general profile, in the form of the eye, in
the front view of the face, he would differ from both.
In the colour of his skin, in the character of his hair,
and in the lower part of his profile, he would differ from
the Negro. In the upper portion of the profile, and in
the outline of the head, he would differ from the European.
The Mongolian's, or Tungusian's, face would be broad
and flat, with the cheek-bones prominent. The breadth
of the head from side to side would be nearly equal to
its length from the forehead to the occiput ; the nose
would be flat, and, almost certainly, neither arched nor
aquiline ; the eyes would be drawn upwards at their
outer angle, the skin would be of a yellowish-brown,
the hair straight, the beard scanty, and the stature under-
sized.
The Negro, besides his black complexion and crisp hair,
INTRODUCTION. 3
would exhibit a greater depth of head measuring from
before backwards, and the upper jaw would be much more
projecting. Possibly it might be so prominent as to give
the head the appearance of being placed behind the face
rather than above it.
The European would be characterized by negative rather
than positive qualities. His face would be less broad, and
his head would have greater depth in proportion to its
breadth than would be the case with the Mongol. As
compared with the African he would differ most in the
parts between the nose and chin. The mouth of the Negro,
instead of lying under the nose and forehead, projects
forwards, in a slightly elongated shape, so as, in extreme
cases, to be a muzzle rather than a mouth ; the effect of
which, as already stated, is to throw the upper part of the
face and head behind the jaw. In the European profile,
on the other hand, the general direction is vertical. The
upper jaw does not project, and the forehead does not
retire ; so that the forehead, nose, and mouth are, compa-
ratively speaking, nearly in the same line.
Now these distinctions we find in looking at the face
only; those of the Mongolian being best shown in a
front view, those of the Negro and European in profile.
They are also those that would be drawn by a painter
or a sculptor ; i. e. such as we can detect by merely ex-
amining the outline and surface of the head and face.
They are external. Differences in the colour of the
eyes and the form of the limbs might also be easily
discovered.
Important as these are, they are not the points which
the ethnologist most looks to. Although the colour of
the skin and eyes and the texture of the hair may be
determined by external influences, the real reasons for
B 2
INTRODUCTION.
the differences of outline lie in the differences of the
skull and the bony parts of the face : and as, in addition
to this, the skull is the receptacle of the brain, and the
brain is the organ wherein the human species most differs
from others, anatomists have long been in the habit of
determining the different varieties of the human race, by
the difference in the conformation of their skulls. With
this view, the particular bones of most importance are
the following : —
The Frontal bone, forming the forehead. — The more the
frontal bone retires, the lower is the forehead, and the
more prominent the face. The more it is vertical or
arched, the more the brain seems to be in superposition
over the face ; rather than lying behind it. By drawing
one line from the opening of the ear to the base of the
nose, by drawing a second from the most prominent part
of the forehead to the insertion of the teeth, and by
measuring the inner angle at which these two lines bisect
each other, we have the famous facial angle of Camper ;
in other words, we have a measure for the extent to which
a forehead is retreating or vertical.
The Occipital bone. — This forms the back of the head.
The distance between the frontal and occipital bones
is the occipito-frontal diameter. It constitutes the
length or depth of the head, in contradistinction to its
breadth.
The Parietal bones, forming the sides of the skull. — The
distance between the two parietal bones is the parietal
diameter. It constitutes the breadth of the skull, in con-
tradistinction to its length or depth. The ratio between
these two diameters has been most studied by Professor
Retzius, of Stockholm. Nations where the development
is in the occipito-frontal diameter are called doliklio-
INTRODUCTION. 5
kephalic* Nations where it is in the parietal diameter
are called braJchykephalic.^
The Zygoma — Formed by the union of two pro-
cesses, one from the malar, and one from the temporal
bone, and enclosing a space, within which the muscles
pass from the temporal bone to the lower jaw. It con-
stitutes the ridge that can be felt through the skin,
between the cheek-bone and the ear. When the zygo-
matic space is large, the arch of the zygoma itself projects
laterally outwards.
The Malar bones, i.e. the cheek-bones. — It is unnecessary
to say that the prominence of the cheek-bone affects the
physiognomy. When, over and above this prominence,
the zygoma has a lateral and outward development, the
breadth of the face becomes remarkably and characteris-
tically broad and flat. It is upon the effect of a great
zygomatic development on the form of the skull that
Prichard has founded one of his primary divisions.
Fig. 2. Fig. 3.
* From dolikhos — lony, and kefalie=hcad.
t From braJc/ii/s-=short, and kefalce=1icad.
O INTRODUCTION.
Distance between the zygomata gives breadth to the
face. Distance between the parietal bones, to the head.
The Nasal bones. — The flatter the nasal bones the flatter
the nose. They are generally flat in tribes of Central
Asia and Africa ; prominent, or saddle-shaped, in those
of Europe.
The Upper Maxillary bone. — In this are inserted the
teeth of the upper jaw. In the European it is nearly per-
pendicular. In the Negro it projects forwards ; hence, in
the European, the insertion of the teeth is perpendicular, in
the African oblique. The effect of a projecting maxilla is
a character upon which Prichard has founded one of his
Fig. 4.
primary divisions. When the insertion of the teeth is
perpendicular, or nearly perpendicular to the base of the
nose, the skull is orthognathic ,-* when projecting forwards,
prognathic. f
Upon these distinctions are founded the following forth-
coming terms : occipito-frontal diameter, parietal diameter,
* From orthos— upright, and gnathos=.jaw.
t From pro =fonvards, and gnathos =jaiv.
INTRODUCTION. 7
occipito-frontal * profile, frontal profile, nasal profile, maxil-
lary profile, zygomatic development.
Next to the head, the bony structure of the pelvis has
drawn most attention ; the importance thus given being
natural and reasonable. The form of the pelvis deter-
mines the erect posture of man. These, however, and other
numerous minor details will be noticed as occasion requires.
Notwithstanding the anatomical character of the prin-
ciples upon which the varieties of the Human Species have
been arranged, the terms denoting the chief divisions have
not been given upon anatomical grounds. Hence we do
not talk of the zygomatic or the occipito-frontal tribes, but
of the Negro, or the Mongolian, &c. In other words, the
term is taken from that particular variety which has the
most characteristic conformation.
How many of such terms are necessary is a disputed
point ; the number of the primary divisions being unde-
termined. My own opinion is in favour of it being limited
to three, — the Mongolian, the African, and the European.
To these, many would add a fourth, and fifth, the Malay
and American ; whilst others would raise the Australian
and Hottentot (and many other) conformations into sepa-
rate and primary types. As terms, these will be retained.
Their value, however, as the names of groups and divisions,
will be subordinate to that of the three great types first
named ; a circumstance which brings us to the terms, typi-
cal, sub-typical, transitional and quasi-transitional '.
A Malay and an American, although different, agree
between themselves much more than either of them would
with a Negro. Furthermore, each of them differs from the
Mongolian and Chinese; less, however, than from the
African and European.
* The outline of the hairy scalp.
8 INTRODUCTION.
Now, so far as this difference is concerned, the terms
typical and sub-typical, in their usual sense, are sufficient ;
the Mongolian being the type of the variety which he
represents, whilst the Malay and American each illustrate
a sub-typical modification.
But this is not all. In departing from one type, an
individual, a tribe, or a nation may approach another.
This is the case when the hair of the African becomes
straight, his complexion brunette, and his lips thin. It
is also the case when a Mongol becomes light-haired or
blue-eyed. In each of these changes the effect is the
same. The original conformation has become European-
ized. Hence we have —
1st. Simple sub-typical deviation. — This occurs in the
Eskimo. His face is broader than that of the Mongolian ;
but, as this increased breadth merely makes him somewhat
unlike the natives of Central Asia, without approximating
him to the African or European, the deviation is simple.
2nd. Deviation with Transition. — The Finlander has a
Mongoliform skull, but (very often) blue eyes and light
hair ; so that he agrees with the European where he differs
with the Kalmuk. This is deviation and something more.
It is deviation accompanied with the phenomenon of a
transition in form.
Transitions in form, however, are of two kinds^a. those
in which descent plays a part ; b. those in which causes
other than descent play a part.
a. The light-haired Finlander is probably one of three
things —
1. The descendant of Mongolians passing into Euro-
peans.
2. The descendant of Europeans passing into Mongo-
lians.
INTRODUCTION. 9
3. The descendant of the common stock from which the
Europeans on one side, and Mongolians on the other
originated. In all these cases his differential characters
are accounted for by the doctrine of descent.
b. Contrast, however, the case of an Australian Black.
He has Mongol characters and he has Negro characters ; so
that, looking to \\isform only, he presents the phenomenon
of transition ; yet he is in none of the predicaments of the
Finlander, since few ethnologists believe that, in the way
of descent, he has any but the most indirect relationship
to the African.
Hence, transitional forms are of two kinds, the first in-
dicates descent, affiliation, and historical connexion; the
second, the effect of common climatologic, alimentary, or
social influences. This last will be called quasi-transitional.
B. Terms descriptive of differences in the way of lan-
guage. — At the present moment, there are three methods
by which the relation between the different words that
constitute sentences is indicated: — 1. The method of which
the Chinese is a sample ; 2. The method of which the
Greek and Latin are samples ; 3. The method of which
the English is a sample.
In the way of illustration, though not in the way of
history, it is best to take the second first.
1. The Classical method. — In a word like homin-em,
there are two parts, homin-, radical ; -em, inflectional.
In the word te-tig-i, there are the same. The power of
these parts is clear. The tig- and homin- denote the
simple action, or the simple object. The te- denotes the
time in which it takes place ; the -i the agent. In the
proposition te-tig-i homin-em, the -em denotes the relation
between the object (the man touched) and the action (of
touching). Logically, there are two ideas, e.g., that of the
10 INTRODUCTION.
action or object, and that of the superadded conditions
in respect to time, agency, and relation. In Latin and
Greek, as in many other languages, these superadded
conditions are expressed by altering the form of the
original word. Sometimes this is done by the addition of
some sound or sounds, sometimes by simple change — (a,)
homin-is, homin-em ; (5,) speak, spoke. Now this method of
expressing the relation between the different words of a
proposition by changes in the form of the words them-
selves is called the method of inflection, and languages
which adopt it are called inflectional.
2. The English method. — The English language possesses
inflections. Words like father-s, touch-ed, spoke, are
instances of it. Nevertheless it has such important non-
inflectional methods, that it may fairly be put in contrast
with the Latin and Greek. Where a Roman said te-tig-i,
we say I have touched, or / touched ; using /, a separate
word, instead of the incorporated syllable -i. Where a
Roman said patr-i, we say to father ; where a Roman said
tang-am, we say / will (or shall) touch. In other words,
we make auxiliary verbs and prepositions do the work
of inflexions, expressive of case and tense.
3. The Chinese method. — The Chinese method agrees
with the English in expressing the different conditions and
relations of actions and objects by separate words rather
than by inflections ; and it carries this principle so far as
to have even a less amount of inflection ; according to some
writers, none at all. Wherein, then, does it differ? Even
thus. The English is non-inflectional because it has lost
inflections which it once possessed. The Chinese is non-
inflectional because inflections have never been developed.
This involves a great difference between the nature of the
words which, in the two languages (English and Chinese)
INTRODUCTION. 11
do the work of the Greek and Latin inflections. In English
they are, generally speaking, so abstract, as to have a
meaning only when in the context with other words. In
Chinese they are often the names of objects and actions, i.e.
nouns and verbs. If, instead of saying, / go to London,
figs come from Turkey, the sun shines through the air, we
said, / go, end London, figs come, origin Turkey, the sun
shines, passage air, we should discourse after the manner
of the Chinese.
But what if the inflectional parts of inflected words
(nouns and verbs) were once separate words, which have
since been incorporated with the radical term? In such a
case, the difference between languages of the Chinese, and
languages of the classical type would be a difference of
degree only. Nay more, in languages like the Chinese
the separate words most in use to express relation may
become adjuncts or annexes. In this case, inflexion is
developed out of mere juxtaposition, and composition. Is
this a hypothesis or a real fact ? It is thus much of a fact.
The numerous inflexional languages fall into two classes.
In one the inflexions have no appearance of having been
separate words. In the other their origin as separate words
is demonstrable.
The nomenclature arising from these distinctions, and
requiring notice in the present preliminary remarks, is as
follows : —
1. Languages of the Chinese typs. — Aptotic.*
2. Inflexion which can generally be shown to have arisen
out of the juxtaposition and composition of different words.
— Agglutinate. — Here the incorporation has not been
sufficiently complete to wholly disguise the originally inde-
pendent and separate character of the inflexional addition.
* From a=^not, and plosis=a case.
12 INTRODUCTION.
3. Inflexion, wherein the existence of the inflexional ele-
ments as separate and independent words cannot be shown.
— Amalgamate. — Here the speculator is at liberty to argue
from the analogy of the agglutinate inflexions, and to sup-
pose that, owing to a greater amount of euphonic influ-
ences, the incorporation is more perfect.
4. Languages of the English type. — Anaptotic. *
c. Terms descriptive of differences in social cultivation.
1. The hunter state. — -The full import of this term, which
always implies a low degree of civilization, is to be inferred
from the extent to which it indicates migratory habits,
precariousness of subsistence, and imperfect property in the
soil. Changing the land for the sea, the fisher state is
essentially the same.
2. The pastoral state. — Precariousness of subsistence less
than in the hunter state. Migratory habits, in many
cases, much the same. Higher in the scale of civilization ;
since the breeding of animals gives moveable property.
Property in the soil improved but still imperfect.
3. The agricultural state. — Migratory habits rare. Pre-
cariousness of food but slight. Property in the soil —
except in the cases of migratoryf cultivation — perfect.
4. 5. Material and moral influences in the history of the
world. — 'The first term means changes effected by physical
force only ; the second, the influences of religion, literature,
science, and political and social morality.
* From ana=buck, and ptosis=a case. Falling back from inflexion.
•)• As that of some of the sub-Himalayan and Indo-Chinese tribes.
PART I.
The Primary Varieties of the Human Species.
I. MONGOLIA}.
II. ATLANTID^E.
III. IAPETID.E.
THE questions connected with the Natural History of
the Human Species are so thoroughly questions of descent,
affiliation, or pedigree, that I have no hesitation in putting
the names of the primary divisions in the form of Greek
patronymics ; the supposed ancestor (or eponymus) being,
of course, no real individual, but an ethnological fiction.
To have used, instead, the words stock, race, tribe, or
even the more scientific terms — order, class, sub-order,
preceded by an adjective, and to have spoken of the
Mongolian stock, race, tribe or order, &c., would, ap-
parently, have been the correcter method. It is not,
however, so convenient. Every word of the sort in ques-
tion is either required for the expression of the minor
divisions, or is objectionable on other grounds.
I am also aware that this use of the forms in -idee to
express the divisions of a species, rather than those of
an order, is at variance with the nomenclature of the
14 PRIMARY VARIETIES.
zoologists. Still, the terms are less embarrassed with incon-
veniences than any I have hit upon.
I. MONGOLID^. — Face broad and flat from either the development of the
zygomata, or that of the parietal bones ; often from the depression of the
nasal bones. Frontal profile retiring, or depressed, rarely approaching the per-
pendicular. Maxillary profile, moderately prognathic or projecting, rarely ortho-
gnathic. Eyes often oblique. Skin rarely a true white ; rarely a jet black. Irides
generally dark. Hair straight, and lank, and black ; rarely light-coloured ; some-
times curly, rarely woolly.
Languages. — Aptotic, and agglutinate ; rarely with a truly amalgamate
inflexion.
Distribution. — Asia, Polynesia, America.
Influence upon tlie history of the world. — Material rather than moral.
II. ATLANTIDJE Maxillary profile projecting, nasal generally flat, frontal
retiring, cranium dolikhokephalic, the parietal diameter being generally narrow.
Eyes rarely oblique. Skin often jet-black, very rarely approaching a pure
white. Hair crisp, woolly, rarely straight, still more rarely light-coloured.
Languages. — With an agglutinate, rarely an amalgamate inflexion.
Distribution. — Africa.
Influence on the history of the world. — Inconsiderable.
III. IAPETIDJE. — Maxillary profile but little projecting, nasal often promi-
nent, frontal sometimes nearly vertical. Face rarely very flat, moderately broad.
Skull generally dolikhokephalic. Eyes rarely oblique. Skin white, or brunette.
Hair never woolly, often light-coloured. Irides black, blue, grey .
Languages. — With amalgamate inflections, or else anaptotic; rarely agglutinate,
never aptotic.
Distribution. — Europe.
Influence on the history of the world. — Greater than that of either the Mongo-
lidae or the Atlantidae. Moral as well as material.
These characters have been framed to meet the typical,
sub-typical, and quasi- transitional, but not the true
transitional forms. The reason of this is clear. Where
the transition is real, and where the affiliation in the way
of descent coincides with similarity of conformation, the
tribe thus situated belong to two divisions, rather than to
any single one.
MONGOLID^.
DIVISIONS.
A. — THE ALTAIC MONGOLID^.
B. — THE DIOSCURIAN MONGOLID^E.
C. — THE OCEANIC MONGOLID.E.
D. — THE HYPERBOREAN MONGOLID^.
E. — THE PENINSULAR MONGOLID.E.
F. — THE AMERICAN MONGOLID^E.
G. — THE INDIAN MONGOLID.S:.
A.
ALTAIC MONGOLID^E.
THE term Altaic is taken from the Altai mountains in
Central Asia, these being a convenient geographical centre
for the different nations and tribes comprised in this divi-
sion. It contains the following sub-divisions : —
1. The Seriform Stock.
2. The Turanian Stock.
I.
SERIFORM STOCK.
Physical conformation. — Mongol.
Languages. — Either wholly aptotic, or with only the rudiments of an inflexion.
Area. — China, Tibet, and the Indo-Chinese, or Transgangetic, Peninsula, as
far as Malaya ; the Himalayan, and parts of the sub-Himalayan, range of
mountains.
Chief Divisions. — 1. The Chinese. 2. The Tibetans. 3. The Anamese.
4. The Siamese. 5. The Kambojians. 6. The Burmese. 7. The Mon. 8.
Numerous unplaced tribes.
I have begun with the nations and tribes represented
by the Chinese, Tibetans, and Indo-Chinese, on the strength
of the primitive condition of their languages. This re-
presents the earliest known stage of human speech ; by
16 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
which I mean, not that it was spoken earlier than the
other tongues of the world, but only that it has changed,
or grown, more slowly. I should also add, that over and
above the fact of these languages being destitute of true
inflection, the separate words generally consist of only a
single syllable. Hence the class has been called mono-
syllabic. This latter character, however, has no essential
connection with the aptotic form. A language of dissyl-
lables or trisyllables may, for any thing known to the
contrary, be as destitute of inflections as a monosyllabic
one. Still, it must be admitted that no such tongue
has yet been discovered.
THE CHINESE.
Locality. — China ; bounded by the countries of the Koreans, Mantshu, Mon-
golians, Tibetans, and the hill tribes of the Transgangetic Peninsula and Assam.
Religion. — Modified Buddhism, or the religion of Fo.
Mode of Writing. — Rhsematographic, i.e. the written signs represent whole
words ,• * not merely the parts of words, single articulate sounds or syllables.
Physical Conformation. — Mongoliform. According to Prichard the maxillary
profile projects. According to Retzius, the maxillary profile projects, and the
cranial development is elongated, or occipito- frontal. That the jaw, in some
degree, projects, and that the forehead also retires, is shown by a remark of
Tradescant Lay's, — e.g. : that the Chinese profile slopes upwards from the chin
to the beginning of the hairy scalp.
No country in the world of equal magnitude with China
has so homogeneous or so dense a population. From the
ocean to Tibet, from Corea to Cochin-China, the language
is one, and the physiognomy is one ; and it is only when
we reach the mountain-ridges of the west and south, that
we find, in the ruder and more imperfectly civilized tribes
that inhabit them, any material variation from the general
uniformity of the most populous empire in the world.
This is the case whatever be the test that is applied. The
language varies from the refined speech of the Mandarins
* In Greek, Rhamata = words.
THE CHINESE. 17
to the comparative rudeness of certain provincial dialects ;
the complexion and contour of the face vary also ; and the
civilization is less characteristic in some districts than in
others ; but all these deviations lie within narrow limits.
In China, the steppeland of High Asia slopes down-
wards to the North Pacific. Hence we have a sea-board
of average proportion as compared with the inland area.
It faces, however, one ocean only ; and that the Pacific.
Of this no island larger than Hainan is inhabited by a
Chinese population ; Formosa not being Chinese. No
mountain-ranges are of sufficient magnitude to be compared
with the systems of Tibet or those of the Transgangetic
Peninsula. Still, there are three well-marked water-sheds
— that of the Hoang-ho on the north, that of the Canton
River on the south, and that of Kiang-Ku between them :
and there are the fertile alluvial valleys corresponding.
Upon the whole the physical geography of China is that
of an agricultural and industrial population. This the
Chinese are to a pre-eminent degree : and when we come
to the Malay Archipelago we shall find that they are also
traders. I am much more inclined to measure their civili-
zation by this test, than by their pretensions to an indi-
genous literature of an almost unfathomable antiquity ; a
point which will be noticed in the sequel.
In physical conformation the Chinese have a yellow-brown
complexion, a broad face, and a scanty beard, lank black
hair, dark irides, and a stature below that of the Euro-
pean. This is what we expect, as part and parcel of the
common Mongol characteristics. Harshness of feature
they have in a less degree than the true Mongolians ;
a tendency to obesity in a greater. In this respect, they
have been called Mongols softened down. This is what
they really are. One point of physiognomy, however, is
18 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
more peculiarly Chinese than aught else, — viz. the linear
character, and oblique direction of the opening of the eyes.
This is narrow, so that little of the eye is seen. It is also
drawn upwards at its outer angle, and so becomes oblique
in its position, Sometimes in addition to this the upper
eyelid hangs heavy and tumid over the eyeball ; and some-
times the skin forms a crescentic fold between the inner
angle of the eye and the nose ; as may be seen in indi-
viduals out of China, and which is not uncommon in
England.
Now the peculiarity that I have just attempted to
describe, is one of the minute points of difference between
the Chinese and several other Mongol nations. The
oblique eye will often be noticed in the following pages ;
sometimes from the fact of its presence, sometimes from
that of its absence. It is not exclusively Chinese : but it
is found in its most marked form in China.
THE TIBETANS.
Localities. — Tibet, Butan, Ladakh, Bultistan, or Little Tibet.
Political relations. — Tibet, subject to China, Ladakh a part of the Sikh
empire, Bultistan and Butan, independent.
Divisions.— 1. The Bhot of Tibet. 2. The Bhutan Tibetans. 3. The La-
dakh Tibetans. 4. The Bulti.
Conterminous. — Taking the family altogether, with the Chinese, Mongolians,
Turks, Northern tribes and nations of Hindostan, North-Western tribes of the
Burmese empire, and certain tribes akin to the Persians.
Religion. — Chiefly Buddhism. Brahminism on the Indian frontier. Shia
Mahometanism in Little Tibet.
Language. — Dialects, in some cases, perhaps, independent languages, of the
Tibetan.
Alphabet. — Derived from the Pali of India.
Physical appearance. — Mongol.
1. — The Bhot. — These are the inhabitants of Tibet
Proper, and Tangut. They are all Buddhists in the more
exaggerated form ; and it is in the Tibetan monasteries
where the greatest abundance of Buddhist literature is to
THE TIBETANS. 19
be found. This is almost wholly religious, and in a great
measure a translation from either the Sanskrit or the
Pali. The first century after Christ is generally con-
sidered as the epoch at which the religion was introduced
into Tibet : and this epoch is a likely one.
2. — The Tibetans of Butan. — Although Buddhists, the
Tibetans of Butan have been modified by Hindu influences.
Their government is that of a Rajah, and many of their out-
lying tribes are extended to the south of the Himalayan range.
3. — Ladakh Tibetans. — With the exception of the
southern frontier of Butan, Ladakh is the portion of the
Tibetan area which is best known, and where the proper
Tibetan type is most subjected to foreign influences.
Although the religion be the religion of Buddha, there
was a short interval of Mahometanism. Originally depend-
ent upon the Guru Lama of Hlassa, Ladakh subse-
quently became one of the extreme points of the Chinese
empire, retaining its own princes. In the reign, however,
of Aurungzeb, it was overrun by the Turks. These,
however, Aurung/eb expelled at the request of the fugi-
tive Raja, who promised to become Mahometan in return ;
and kept his promise. It was broken, however, by his
successor, so that the religion of Mahomet was professed
for a time only. It was, however, tolerated afterwards.
The last conquest of Ladakh was by the Sikhs under
Runjeet Singh ; and it now follows the fortunes of the
Sikh dynasty. This has opened a door to the Indians
of the Punjab. To these elements of intermixture may
be added, the presence of numerous settlers from Cashmir.
Lastly, there is a settlement of Shia Mahometans from
Little Tibet.
4. — The Bulti of Bidtistan, or Little Tibet — The most
differential characteristic of the Bulti Tibetans, is that
c 2
20 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
they are no Buddhists, but Mahometans, of the Shia per-
suasion, their conversion having come from Persia. It
has been already stated that the Bulti enjoy a political
independence.
Kunawer. (?) I have not examined how far the Kunawer
tribes, located where the Sutlege breaks through the
Himalayas, deserve to be classed as a separate division. At
all events their language is monosyllabic (probably closely
allied to the Ladakh), as may be seen in the Theburskud,
Milchan, and Sumchu vocabularies of Gerard.*
The Polyandria of Tibet. — The current doctrine respect-
ing the so-called Polyandria of Tibet, is that it is the com-
mon polygamy of the east reversed ; i.e., that one woman
marries several husbands, who may all be alive at the
same time.
What is most certain upon this obscure point is that
the surviving brother inherits the wife of the one that
died.
It is not so certain, although highly probably, that the
wife is the property of two or more brothers at the same
time.
At any rate the marriage, if so it may be called, is
confined to the circle of the brothers-in-law. Perhaps
the truth is that every brother-in-law is a husband.
THE ANAMESE.
Locality. — Tunkin and Cochin- China.
Conterminous with the Chinese ; and, except so far as they are partially sepfi-
rated by mountain -tribes, with the Kambojians and Siamese.
Religion. — Buddhism.
Language. — Different from, but allied to, the Chinese.
Physical Appearance. — Like that of the Chinese, except that the average height
is somewhat less. Upper extremities long, lower, short and stout. Form of the
skull more globular than square. Eyelids less turned than that of the Chinese.
* Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
ANAMESE AND SIAMESE. 21
Mouth large ; lips prominent, but not thick ; moustache more abundant than
beard ; beard scanty, though encouraged. Colour more yellow than either
brown or blackish. Clothing abundant. — Finlayson from Prichard.
THE SIAMESE.
Locality. — From the Gulf of Siam and the neck of the Malayan Peninsula
to the frontiers of China. Part of Assam. Conterminous on the east, except
so far as they are separated by mountain tribes, with the Anamese, and Kam-
bojians ; on the west, subject to the same limitation, with the Mon of Pegu,
and the tribes of the Burmese empire. On the south with the Malays of
the Malayan Peninsula.
Synonym, — T'hay, the native name.
Religion . — Buddhist.
Alphabets. — Of Indian origin, rounded forms of the Pali.
Chief Divisions. — Laos, Shyan, (Ahom ?) Khamti.
Physical Appearance. — Average height of twenty men, taken indiscriminately,
five feet three inches, the tallest being five feet eight inches, the shortest, five feet
two inches. Limbs and trunk robust. Complexion, light brown, lighter than
the Malay, darker than the Chinese. Hair, black, lank, coarse and abundant.
Hairy scalp descends low. Nose small, but not flattened ; nostrils divergent.
Sclerotica yellowish. Outer angles of the eye turned upwards. Cheek-bones
broad and high. Lower jaw square, so as to look as if the parotid gland were
swollen. — Crawford and Finlayson from Prichard.
In the history of the Siamese Tribes, the conquest of
Assam is, perhaps, the most important event ; and this is
connected with their wide distribution.
In the lower part of the valley of Assam the language is
Bengali, or nearly so ; but only in the lower part. The
upper half is peopled by different small mountain tribes,
one of which is the Khamti.
The Khamti. — In the North Eastern corner of Assam,
the Khamti are conterminous with the Singpho, Mishimi,
and Miri, and are traditionally reported to have emi-
grated from the head-waters of the Irawaddi. In phy-
sical appearance they are middle-sized, more resembling
the Chinese than any tribe on the frontier. Perhaps, a
shade darker in complexion. Their alphabet is Siamese ;
and their language, far north as it is spoken, when compared
with the Siamese of Bankok, closely resembles that dialect.
22 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
In Brown's * Vocabularies the proportion of words, similar
or identical, in Khamti and Siamese, is 92 per cent.
Still it is by no means certain that the Khamti repre-
sent the original conquerors. These were Ahoms ; their
alphabet was Ahom, and the language Ahom. The
Ahom, however, was Siamese ; and probably the Khamti
was a dialect of it.
The Ahom literature, preserved in the books of the
Assam priesthood, is said to be remarkable for the nega-
tive fact of there being in it no traces of the Hindu
religion — either Buddhist or Brahminical. This speaks
much either in favour of the antiquity of the conquest,
or for the recent date of the Hindu influence.
In A.D. 1695, the Brahminical religion was estab-
lished in Assam : how much earlier is uncertain.
THE KAMBOJIANS.
Locality. — Lower course of the Mekhong river. East of the Siamese, west
of the Anamese, except so for as they may be separated by isolated mountain
tribes, conterminous with these nations.
Our knowledge respecting the Kambojians is not suffi-
ciently definite to enable us to say how far they differ, or
how far they agree with certain tribes of the interior,
which have been described separately. In Prichard I find
that they were supposed by the Portuguese to have been
derived from a warlike nation of the interior, called Kho,
or Gueo ; who are still represented as painting and tattoo-
ing their bodies.
Now these Kho, or Gueo, are probably the Ka described
along with the Chong, as a separate people. If so we are
enabled to dispose of three unplaced tribes ; since, by
Crawfurd's Ka and Chong vocabularies we can connect,
perhaps identify, them with the Kambojians.
* Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. vi. part 2.
KAMBOJIANS, BURMESE, AND MOiV. 23
ENGLISH. KA. CHONG. KAMBOJIAN.
Sun tangi tarigi tangai.
Moon kot kang ke.
Water
dak
. . . tak
tak.
River
. . . dak-tani . . .
. .. talle
, tanle.
Fire
... un ,
. . pleu
plung.
Fish
... tre
mel
, trai.
One
moe ,
moe
moe.
Two
. . . bar
bar
pir.
Three
. . . peh ,
. . peh
bai.
Four
pon
buan.
Five
chang ,
. . . pram
pram.
Most of the Ka, and Chong words which are not Kara-
bojian are either Anamitic or Mon.
Furthermore, in Crawford's Embassy to Siam, a voca-
bulary representing a fourth Kambojian dialect is given ;
the Khomen,
THE BURMESE.
Locality. — Valley of the Irawaddi. Conterminous, save so far as interrupted
by mountain-tribes, with Assam, China, Siam, and Pegu.
Divisions. — 1. The Myamma, or Burmese of Ava. 2. The Rhukheng, or
people of Arakan.
Religion. — Buddhist.
Alphabet. — Of Indian origin, a rounded form of the Pali.
Physical appearance. — More beard, more prominent features, and darker
complexions than the Siamese, Anamese, and Chinese. Beard also more abun-
dant. The darkness of complexion increasing towards the confines of Bengal.
THE MON.
Locality — The Delta of the Irawaddi ; Pegu.
A Iphabet. — Burmese.
The notices hitherto given have applied only to the
great political divisions of the variety speaking mono-
syllabic languages; and have referred to nations of a
known and similar degree of civilization. It would be an
error, however, to suppose that they supply a complete enu-
meration. Hardly an empire mentioned will not exhibit
some instance of a new series of phenomena standing over
24 SERIPORM ALTAIC MONGOLIDJS.
for investigation. The Chinese, the Burmese, and the
Siamese, represent merely the dominant tribes of their
several areas ; those whereof the civilization and territorial
power have given their possessors a certain degree of
prominence in the history of the world. The intermixed
tribes, sometimes imperfectly subdued, always imperfectly
civilized, inhabiting barren tracts or mountain fastnesses,
have a value in ethnology which they cannot command
in history. In these we see the original substratum of
the different national characters, as it may be supposed to
have shown itself, before it was modified by foreign in-
fluences. In a more advanced stage of our knowledge,
these tribes will probably be brought under one of the
sub-divisions already noticed. At present, even when
in some cases they may be so placed, it is best to take
them in detail ; premising that, the list does not pre-
tend to be exhaustive, that, from the fluctuations of the
geographical nomenclature, the same tribe may be men-
tioned twice over, and, lastly, that partly from imperfect
knowledge, and partly from changes of locality, arising
from migrations of the tribes themselves, the geographical
position is, in many cases, difficult to fix.
The notice, however, of the minor representatives, real
or supposed, of the great division of the human race
speaking monosyllabic languages now commences.
THE SI-FAN.
The word * Si means west, whilst Fan means stranger ; so that Si-fan means
western strangers. The term means one or more of the wilder tribes on the
Tibetan or Mongolian frontier.
Nothing is less likely than that the Si-fan should differ in kind from the
Chinese — unless it be that they are Turk, Mongol, or Tibetan.
* Prichard, vol. iv.
THE MIAOU-TSE. 25
THE MIAOU-TSE.
These are the so-called aborigines of China. It were,
perhaps, more accurate to call them the Chinese in their
most aboriginal form. The term means children of the soil.
Their localities are the mountains of Southern and Central
China. They seem to consist of a number of tribes
rather than to constitute any particular people ; so that it is
possible that many varieties of the primitive Chinese may
be comprised under the general appellation. Those of Ping-
sha-hwang are divided into the white and Hack Miaou-tse ;
from the difference of their complexion. Both the Abbe
Gosier and Tradescant Lay* speak to their indomitable
courage, and to their spirit of independence, their subjec-
tion being still imperfect. Their weapons are the bow
and cross-bow. Their employment agriculture. The fol-
lowing is an account of their religious rites from the
author last named.
" Religious Rites. — When a man among the Miaou-tse
who inhabit the Ping-sha-shih hills, marries, he sticks five
small flags into a bundle of grass fastened together by
about seven different bands. Before this strange pageant
he kneels, while the rest of his friends fold their arms and
bow ; after this they make merry with music and dancing.
At the death of father or mother, the eldest son remains
at home for forty-nine days without washing his face ;
when this period has been completed, he sacrifices to a
divinity which is called Fang-Jcwei, and seems to cor-
respond in office with Mercury, who, according to the
views of ancient mythology, conducted the spirits of the
dead to the abodes of happiness. If the eldest sou be
poor, and cannot afford to lose the labour of so long a
time, the grandson or some other descendant performs this
* " The Chinese as they are," p. 319.
26 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
duty in his stead. Among the mountaineers styled the
Hea-king, when a man is sick, his friends offer the head of
a tiger to the prince of divinities. The head is placed
upon a charger, with a sword ; three incense-sticks and
two candles behind it, and three cups of wine in front.
Before this curious oblation the worshippers fold their
hands, or cross their arms and bow themselves. Another
tribe, when they would propitiate the good-will of the
powers which influence the weather, appoint ten companies
of young men and women, who, after dressing themselves
in robes made of felt, and binding their loins with an em-
broidered girdle, dance and play the organ with every suit-
able demonstration of joy and festivity. This gay ceremony
is kept up for three days and three nights, at the end of
which they sacrifice an ox, to obtain, says the Chinese
writer, a plentiful year. A father among the same people,
when his son is ten months old, offers a white tiger, and
accompanies the oblation with such rites of merriment as
his circumstances can afford. At this time a name is given
to the child. This reminds us of a modern christening,
when the solemnities of religion are straightway followed
by the mirth, good cheer, and gaieties of a festival.
When a tribe called the Chung-king mourn for their dead,
they kill an ox, and place the head and feet upon an altar,
with basins filled with food, lighted candles, and cups of
wine by way of drink-offering. The altar resembles a
table, and explains a phrase used in Isaiah, " Ye have
prepared a table for that number." The bridal ceremonies
with another tribe are attended by the sacrifice of a dog,
at which the relatives of husband and wife are present.
"A people called the Western Miaou-tse, in the middle of
autumn offer a sacrifice to the grest ancestor or founder of
their race. For this purpose, they select a male ox or buf-
THE MIAOU-TSE. 27
falo which is well covered with hair, and has its horns
quite perfect ; that is, in other words, an animal without
blemish. To put it in good condition, they feed it with
grass and water till the rice or corn is ripe, when the ani-
mal is fat. They then distil a certain quantity of spirit
from the grain, and slay the ox. Being thus provided
for a feast, they invite all their relatives, who come and
carouse with them amidst plays, singing, and the loud
challenges of jolly companions. In the first-fruits which
the Chinese present at the close of harvest, we have a re-
presentative of Cain^s offering ; but in the ceremony just
described, there are some traces of that which Abel brought
to the altar. The aboriginal Chinese retain the rite, but
the object worshipped is disguised under an equivocal name,
— equivocal, because the Creator has a claim to the title of
original ancestor by way of eminence, as well as the com-
mon parent of mankind. When the mind of man was
darkened, he confounded Adam with his Maker, and wor-
shipped the creature instead of the Creator, who is blessed
for ever.
" With the White Miaou-tse, a rite is observed some-
what in character like the last, but for a different purpose.
These select an ox well-proportioned and carrying a perfect
pair of horns. This animal they feed carefully to prepare
it for sacrifice. Each cantonment keeps an ox in this way
in readiness to be offered to the great ancestor, whenever,
in any of their contests, victory shall declare in their
favour. After the sacrifice has been performed by the
master of the sacrifice, or priest, the relatives of the sac-
rificer join in a regular festivity of singing and drinking.
A tribe commended for the purity of their disposition
and their obedience to the magistrate, at the death of
a person collect a large quantity of fuel together, and, I
28 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
suppose, make a great burning for him. When a man is
about to marry among a particular race of mountaineers,
he allows two of his teeth to be knocked out with a ham-
mer and hard chisel, to avert the mischiefs of matrimony.
These, too, cut off the forelocks and spread the hair be-
hind ; they also, like the Chinese, bestow some attention
upon the beauty of their eyebrows."
THE LOLOS.
Probably these belong more to Siam* than to China. Mutatis mutandis, they
are on the southern frontier what the Si-fan are on the west.
They are so far civilized as to have taken their religion (Buddhism), and an
alphabet from Ava or Pegu.
THE QUANTO.
The Quanto inhabit* the range of mountains between Anam and China. They
represent the original civilization, or want of civilization, of Cochin-China and
Tonkin, — i.e. of Cochin-China and Tonkin before the influence of China.
They are in possession of an alphabet.
THE TSHAMPA.
Inhabitants of the southernmost* coast of Cochin-China. Their language, of
which I have not seen a specimen, is said to differ from both the Chinese and
the Kambojian. They are a civilized people, and were so in the time of Marco
Polo. According to Crawfurd, their civilization was, to a certain extent, due
to Indian influences. At present there is a Malay settlement on their coast
THE MOY.
The southern part of the mountains which form the watershed between Cochin-
China and Kambojia is the residence of the Moy. According to Chapman, they
are eminently dark-complexioned ; an observation which will be found in the
sequel to apply to several other of the minor tribes of the division in question.*
Sub-divisions of the Laos branch of the Siamese. — As
laid down in the maps, the Laos fill up the whole area
between China on the north, Siam on the south, Cochin-
China and Kambojia on the east, and Ava on the west ;
of this area, however, little is known in detail.
One of the divisions of the Laos is called Lau*-pang-
* Prichard, vol. iv.
KARIEN, SILONG. 29
dun, or the Black Laos, from the darkness of their com-
plexion.
Tribes, too, called Pa-y and Pa-pe,* are said to be Laos.
Lastly, the relations between the true Laos, and the
Ahom, Khamti, and Shyan, have yet to be made out in
a satisfactory manner.
KARIEN.
Distribution. — Irregular ; from the eleventh to the twenty-third degree of
north latitude ; from the Mergui Province in Tenasserim to the borders of China,
between the Burmese on the west and the Siamese on the east. On the
river Salwin, are the so-called Red Karien.
Name. — Burmese. Called Kadun in Pegu.
The Kariens, unless they are Siamese, have next to
that nation the greatest extension, north and south. Ground
down by the oppression of the Burmese, they are, with
the exception of the red Kariens, who still preserve an
imperfect independence, a decreasing race. Of their lan-
guage we have specimens f in more than one dialect, viz.,
the Passuko, Maplu, and Play. They are agricultural
tribes, clearing the land for the cultivation of rice, and
then leaving it to migrate elsewhere. — Arva in annos
mutant, et superest ager.
SILONG.
Locality. — Islands of the Mergui Archipelago.
Number. — Said to be about one thousand.
Language. — Said to be peculiar.
Authority. — Dr. Heifer's Third Report on the Tenasserim Provinces. — Jour-
nal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. viii.
The details now forthcoming apply to the districts lying
north of a line drawn from the southernmost point of
Arakan to the Irawaddi ; and they comprise the eastern
extensions of the Arakan tribes, the parts about Manipur,
and the complex, but important line of frontier between
* Prichard vol. iv. •)• Buchanan, Asiatic Researches.
30 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
the Indo-Chinese kingdoms, and the Indian portions of
Bengal and Assam.
The first tribes that will be noticed are those which are
most closely related to the inhabitants of Arakan.
NAG AS.
Locality. — South-east Assam, in the north-eastern portion of the mountain
range between Assam and the Burmese empire. Conterminnous with the
Singpho on the north-east.
KUKI.
Locality. — Mountains of Tipperah, Sylhet and Chittagong. A south-western
prolongation of the Nagas.
Synonyms. — Lunctas, Koung-thias. (?)
KHUMIA (CHOOMEEAS).
Locality. — The same mountains as the Kuki, only on a lower level. The
word means villagers, KJium^village.
The Naga, Kuki, and Khumia, are tribes of one family.
Their ethnographical position is certain. They have long
been known to be part of Ehukheng division of the
Burmese tribes, speaking the same language with the
inhabitants of Arakan, and connecting themselves with
that people in their traditions respecting their own origin.
I may also add that the similarity of manners between
them and the Garo is very manifest
KHYEN.
Locality. — The Yuma mountains between Ava and Arakan. Independent
Pagans.
Name. — Burmese. Native name Koloun. Buchanan, in Asiatic ResearcJies,
vol. v.
Authority. — Lieutenant Trant in Asiatic ResearcJies, vol. xvi.
The faces of the Khyen women are tattooed. That the
following reason, however, for the practice is valid, is more
than I will venture to vouch.
One of the forms of tribute to one of the conquerors
of the Khyens, was the payment of a certain number of
MANIPUR. 31
the most beautiful women of the country. In order to do
away with the danger to which their unmutilated charms
exposed them, the whole generation tattooed themselves ;
and their descendants have done so since.
MANIPUR.
Synonyms, — Kathi or Kassay, Moitay.
Locality. — Bounded on the east by the right branch of the Irawaddi, on the
north and west by the Naga and Kachari countries, on the south by the
Khyen.
An idea of the extent to which the language, for these
parts varies within a small geographical area, may be col-
lected from Captain Gordon's notices of the dialects spoken
in the neighbourhood of Manipur.
Besides the Manipur proper, the following eleven dialects
are illustrated by his vocabularies, * and are said to be
spoken within the limits of a very inconsiderable circle,
of which Manipur is the centre.
1. The Songpu — the most western. Per-centage of
Manipur words, 21. Brown.
2. The Kapwi — a very small tribe. Ditto, 41. Brown.
3. The Koreng. Ditto, 18. Brown.
4. The Maram. Ditto, 25. Brown.
5. The Champhung. — Thirty or forty families. Ditto,
28. Brown.
6. The Luhuppa. Ditto, 31. Brown.
7. The North Tankhul. Ditto, 28. \
Brown.
8. The Central Tankhul. Ditto, 35.
Brown.
Said to be
mutually
unintelligible.
9. The South Tankhul. Ditto, 33.
Brown.
i
* Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. iv. part 2.
32 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
10. The Khoibu. Per-centage of Manipur words, 40.
Brown.
11. The Marlng. Ditto, 50. Brown.
KYO.
Locality . — Arakan, banks of the river Koladyng. A single village.
Religion. — Worship of Nats (Spirits).
Physical Appearance. — Contrasted with that of their neighbours, being so dark
as to suggest the idea that they are of Bengal origin. No traditions, however,
to that effect.
Language. — Monosyllabic, as ascertained by two vocabularies. — Lieut.
Phayre's Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal ', and Lieut. Latter, ditto.
KACHARI.
Locality. — Between the Kasia county, with which it is conterminous on the
east, and Manipur.
KASIA.
Locality. — Southern border of Lower Assam. Conterminous with the Kachari
on the east and the Garo on the west.
A better knowledge of the wild tribes in these parts
than we possess, will, probably, enable us to ascertain
the nature of the most primitive Indo-Chinese religion.
It seems in these parts to be the worship of Nats or spirits.
In the Kasia country the occurrence of erect pillars,
evidently objects of mysterious respect, if not of adoration,
is frequent. These are explained by similar ones in the
Khyen district. They are depicted by Lieutenant Latter
— accurate magis quant, verecunde — and are lingams.
Stout legs, thick lips, and angular eyes, are marked
characters in the Kasia conformation. They burn their
dead. Their ceremonies are few or none. Like the Garo,
they drink no milk. Like the Garo, also, they are said
to have no beast of burden. Like many of the tribes
around them they chew pawn ; and like many of the tribes
around them they obtain, for drink, a liquor fermented from
millet. Millet or rice are the usual sources for the sti-
mulant beverages of this section of the Seriform tribes ;
SINGPHO, JIM, MISHIMI. 33
and, it may be added, that the art of distillation as well
as of simple fermentation is widely spread. I am not
aware that the former is practised by the present tribe ; it
is common, however, in the Sub-Himalayan range. — Lieu-
tenant Yule, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,
xiii. 3.
SINGPHO.
Locality. — A tract of about one thousand four hundred square miles in the
north-eastern corner of Assam. Conterminous with the Khamtis and Mishimis
on the north. Bounded on the south and east by the Patkoe range ; which
divides Assam from the Burmese empire.
Population. — Calculated in 1838 at six thousand.
Government. — Clans under chiefs called Gaums.
Religion. — Imperfect Buddhism. Worship of dead chieftains.
Alphabet. — Shyan or Ahom.
Physical Appearance. — Body long, legs short, complexion tawny.
4
JILL
Locality. — The Burmese side of the Patkoe range. Conterminous with the
Singpho, by whom they have been nearly extinguished.
Language. — Seven-tenths of the Jili vocabulary is Singpho.
MISHIMI.
Locality. — North-east extremity of Assam. Conterminous with the Khnmti
on the south, and the Abors on the west. Mountaineers. Tibet on the north.
Mishimi Tribes. — The Chool Kutta=crop-haired, the Meahu, the Tairi, or
Digaru. According to Brown, the Mai Mishimi, the Taron Mishimi, and the
Maiye or Meme Mishimi.
Probable Population. — Four hundred and sixty.
Physical Appearance. — Stature short. Limbs small, but active, and well-
knit.
The Mishimi country produces, and the Mishimi collect,
a poison called the Bikh Mishimi. This is used both for
the purposes of hunting and of war. So poisonous is it
that a single wound is said to kill an elephant. The flesh,
however, of the animal so killed is eaten with impunity.
BOR ABORS.
Locality. — The loftiest portion of the mountains to the north of Assam.
o
34 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
ABORS.
Locality. — The lower range of the mountains inhabited by the Bor Abors.
MIRI.
Locality. — The foot of the Abor and Bor Abor range. Speaking generally,
the Bor Abors, Abors, and Miri are conterminous with the Khamti, and
Mishimi on the north-east.
DUFLA.
Locality. — South-west of the Abors, on the same mountain range. No less
than one hundred and eighty petty chiefs are said to rule over the numerous
disunited Dufla tribes of the Char Dwan ; and this is only one of their localities.
AKA.
Locality. — The south-western prolongation of the range inhabited by the
Abors and Dufla. Conterminous with the latter.
Language. — Half the words in an Aka and Abor vocabulary are alike.
MUTTUCK.
Locality. — North-east Assam, south of the Burramputer. Conterminous with
the Singhu, Khamti, and Miri.
Synonym. — Muamaria, or Moa Mareya.
Religion. — Imperfect Brahmanism.
The Muttuck persecution is one of the most important
facts in the history of Assam. Prior to the Ahom inva-
sion, said to have taken place 1224, A. D., the Muttucks
had been converted to Hinduism; but to a form of it
which denied the divinity of Durga, and would not admit
the worship of her image. A violent persecution on this
account, between A.D. 1714 and 1744, brought about a
resistance which did much to weaken and disorganise the
Assam empire.
GARO.
Locality. — The Garo hills, at the south-western entrance of the valley of
Assam.
No tribe hitherto mentioned is of the ethnographical
importance of the Graro.
If we call them Indian, they are the most northern
GARO. 35
tribe that has been described as having Negro elements in
their physiognomy.
If we call them Tibetan, or Burmese, they are equally
remarkable for this peculiarity.
Taking their physical appearance as a test, it is the
Garo that seem the likeliest to exhibit a transition be-
tween the type already illustrated, and the type of the
aborigines of Hindostan, supposing such a transition to
exist.
Taking their language into consideration, something of
the same intermediate character is, perhaps, to be found.
It has been referred to each class ; by some to the mo-
nosyllabic tongues of Tibet, or the Burmese empire ; by
others to the Indian group of dialects and languages.
The first description of the Garo is to be found in
the Asiatic Researches. Here it is where they are de-
scribed as approaching the Negro type. Endued with
great physical strength, at least as compared with the
Bengali, they are pagans and savages : their manners,
as stated above, agreeing in many points with those of
the Kukis.
It is, however, by their language that their ethnogra-
phical position will best be determined.
The present writer, who had not then seen Mr. Brown's
Vocabularies, placed this, in ] 844, in the Tibetan division ;
being satisfied of its monosyllabic character.
Mr. Brown's Vocabularies confirm this view (so far as
it goes) of the monosyllabic character of the Garo ; and I
think that the following table — Mr. Brown's also — shew-
ing the per-centage of words in any two languages, does
the same.
D 2
36
SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIDJE.
-H
^H
&
0
X
• 3*
<
|?
o
c=
«<
Mishimi,
£
(U
5
&
I
w
o"
1
'£
>^
£
Jj
0
Manipuri,
>d
pu
5
00
a.
«
X
c£
I
o
M
Maram.
| Champhung, 1
£
S
-=
J
|
-^
H
"Z
C. Tangkhul,
S. Tangkhul,
-="
,0
"3
-c
•y-
1
Anamese,
Khamtf
92
1
1
5
8
8 3
10
3
3
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
Siamese,. . . .
92
0
0
3
6
8 3
10
1
3
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
A'bor
1
0
47
20
17
12 15
15
5
11
3
10
3
8
8
8
5
8
10
8
10
0
A'ka
1
0
47
20
11
10 18
11
6
15
6
11
5
8
6
8
8
8
10
10
18
0
Mishimi, . .
5
3
20
20
10
1010
18
10
11
0
11
0 3
5
C
8 6
13
10
1
Burmese, . .
8
6
17
11
10
2323
20
1216
820
611
11
11
1013
13
16
10
1
Karen, ....
8
8
12
10
1023
17
21
8
15
10 15
<>
12
4
12
8 12 12
1015
2
Singpho
3
3
15
18
102317
70
10
25 10 18
11
11
13
15 13251320 18
5
JiH
10
10
1.5
11
132621 70
22
16 1021
ia
11
11
18 20 20
1 3 20 20
3
Garo,
3
1
5
6
1012
8
1<>
22
10
5
0
6
8
5
8:13 11
O
5 5
3
Manipuri, . .
3
3
11
15
11
16
1525
1610
21 41 18252831 283533
4050
0
Songpu,
1
1
3
6
0
8
10 10
10 5
21
35'50 5320 23,15 15
13
8 15
6
Kapwf, ....
0
0
10
11
11
20
15
18
21
0
41 35
30 33 20 35 30 40 45
3840
5
Koreng, ....
1
1
3
5
0
6
8
11
13
5
18 50 30
41
18
21
2020
' —
10 15
3
Maram, ....
0
0
8
8
3
11
12
11
11
8
25 53 33 4]
21
28
252016
2326
a
Champhung, .
0
0
8
6
5
11
4
13
11
5
282020 1821
40
20^20161525
3
Luhuppa, . .
0
0
8
8
6
11
12
15
18
8
31 '23 35 21 2840
63 55 36 33 40
5
N. Tangkhul,
0
(1
5
8
8
10
8
13
20 1328 1530202520 63
85 30 31 31
3
C. Tangkhul,
0
0
6
8
6
13
12
25
20 11 35 15 40 20 20 20 55^85
41 45|41
1
S. Tangkhul,
0
0
10
1013
13
12
13
13 5331345 11
16 16363041
43
43
5
Khoibu, ....
0
(1
8
1010
10
10
20
20
5
40 8
38ilO
23 153331
45
43
78
a
Maring, ....
0
0
10
18
8
10
15
18
20
5
50
15
40
15
26
25
40
31
41
4378
3
Anamese, . . 5
5
0
0
1
1
2
5
3
3
6
C
5
3
3 3
5
3
1
5
3
3
In the face of this, however, the author writes that it
" would be difficult to decide from the specimens before
us, whether it is to be ranked with the monosyllabic
or polysyllabic languages. It probably belongs to the
latter.'1
Again — Mr. Hodgson connects the Garos with the Bodo,
not, indeed, as a subdivision of that group, but as a class
with a common origin ; adding, that fifteen out of sixty
words in Brown's Vocabulary are the same in Garo and
Bodo.
This involves the position of the Garo with that of the
Bodo ; whilst, in respect to the Bodo, it is convenient to
consider them along with the DTiimal.
We are now in that part of the Indian side of the
Himalayan range, which lies between Assam on the east,
DHIMAL. — BODO. 37
and Sikkim on the west, and which is bounded on the north
by Bhutan. This is the area where the aboriginal Indian
and the Tibetan most intermix.
DHIMAL.
Locality, — Mixed with the Bodo, in their most westerly locality, i. e. between
the Konki and Dhorla.
Numbers. — According to Mr. Hodgson, about 15,000.
Authority. — Hodgson's Dissertation on the Koceh, Bodo, and Dhim&l.
BODO.
Locality. — The forest belt (not the mountains) in a circle round the Valley of
Assam, from Tipperah S. E. to Morung, N.W. Mixed, in their most westerly
localities with the Dhimal.
Synonym. — Mecch.
Name. — Native ; the Mecch call themselves Bodo, and so do the Kachari.
Authority. — Same as for the Dhimal.
The Bodo are the rudest division of the present group
whereof we possess anything like a sufficient amount
of detailed information ; Mr. Hodgson's Dissertation
being, perhaps, the best ethnological monograph existing.
Hence, it is in the Bodo nation that, in the present state
of our knowledge, we must study the general phenomena
of the wilder Seriform tribes.
In respect to their social development the Bodo are
good examples of a very peculiar form. They are tillers of
the soil, and (as such) agriculturists rather than hunters,
fishers, or feeders of flocks and herds. But their agricul-
ture is imperfect, and quasi-nomadic ; since they are not
fixed but erratic or migratory cultivators. They have no
name for a village, no sheep, no oxen, no fixed property
in the soil. Like the ancient Germans, arva in annos
mutant, et superest ager. They clear a jungle, crop it as
long as it will yield an average produce, and then remove
themselves elsewhere.
" They never cultivate the same field beyond the second
38 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
year, or remain in the same village beyond the fourth to
sixth year. After the lapse of four or five years, they
frequently return to their old fields, and resume their
cultivation, if in the interim the jungle has grown well, and
they have not been anticipated by others, for there is no
pretence of appropriation other than possessory, and if,
therefore, another party have preceded them, or, if the
slow growth of the jungle give no sufficient promise of
a good stratum of ashes for the land when cleared by fire,
they move on to another site new or old. If old, they
resume the identical fields they tilled before, but never
the old houses or site of the old village, that being deemed
unlucky. In general, however, they prefer new land to
old, and having still abundance of unbroken forest around
them, they are in constant movement, more especially as,
should they find a new spot prove unfertile, they decamp
after the first harvest is got in."*
It is a fact of some importance that erratic agriculture,
a rare and exceptional form of industrial development, is
probably more general among the Seriform tribes than
elsewhere. It has already been stated to be the habit of
the Karieu, and there is little doubt as to its being far
more general than it has hitherto been described to be.
Contrast with this imperfect form of agricultural in-
dustry the cultivation of the soil in China. The Bodo
villages are small communities of from ten to forty huts
The head of these communities is called the Gra. It is
the Gra who is responsible to the foreign government
(British, Tibetan, or Nepalese), for the order of the com-
munity, and for the payment of its tribute. In cases
* Such are the primitive habits, still in use from the Konki to the Monash and
which are most worthy of study and record, as being primitive and as being com-
mon to two people, the Bodo and Dhimal, though abandoned by the Kamrupian
and most numerous branch of the Bodo.
DHIMAL. BODO. 39
of perplexity the Gras of three or four neighbouring
communities meet in deliberation. Offenders against the
customs of the community may be admonished, fined, or
excommunicated.
This last term suggests a new series of ideas. The
Bodo religious ordinances are apparently very simple ; so
that they form a remarkable contrast with the numerous
details of Hinduism. The birth, the weaning, and the
naming of children are all unattended with ceremonies
requiring the presence of a priest. At funerals and mar-
riages, however, the priest presides. This he does, not
so much as a minister to the essential ceremony, as for
the sake of the feast that accompanies it. No Bodo or
Dhimal will touch flesh which has not been offered to the
gods : and this offering a priest must make. Such being
the case, notwithstanding the statement of Mr. Hodgson,
who describes in somewhat flattering terms the negative
merits of the simple Bodo creed, and who especially affirms
that the priesthood is no hereditary office, I cannot but
suspect that the influence of the spiritual power is greater
than he admits. If not, the Bodo must have but few
meals of meat.
Marriage is a contract rather than a rite. Polygamy
or concubinage is rare : the adoption of children common.
All the sons inherit equally ; daughters not at all. A
Bodo can only marry to one of his own people. Divorce,
though practicable and easy, is rare ; the wife and daughter
have their due influence. No infanticide, no sutti. Child-
ren are named as soon as the mother comes abroad, which
is generally four or five days after her confinement. The
idea that the delivery involves a temporal impurity is
recognised; so that all births (and deaths also) necessi-
tate a temporary segregation and certain purificatory forms.
40 SERIFOEM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
The one, however, is short, and the other simple. The
infant " is named immediately after birth, or as soon as
the mother comes abroad, which is always four or five
days after delivery. There are no family names, or
names derived from the gods. Most Bodo and Dhimals
bear meaningless designations, or any passing event of
the moment may suggest a significant term : thus a
Bhotia chief arrives at the village, and the child is
called Jinkhap ; or a hill peasant arrives, and it is named
Gongar, after the titular or general designation of the
Bhotias. Children are not weaned so long as their mother
can suckle them, which is always from two to three years —
sometimes more — and two children, the last and penul-
timate, are occasionally seen at the breast together. The
delayed period of weaning will account in part for the
limited fecundity of the women. When a Bodo or Dhi-
mal comes of age, the event is not solemnized by any
rite or social usage whatever. Marriage takes place at
maturity, the male being usually from twenty to twenty-
five years of age, and the female, from fifteen to twenty.
Courtship is not sanctioned : the parents or friends ne-
gotiate the wedlock."
In this the commercial element is predominant. A
price — Jan — must be paid by the bridegroom elect for
the intended bride. If the former have " no means of dis-
charging this sum, he must go to the house of his father-
in-law elect and there literally earn his wife by the
sweat of his brow, labouring, more Judaico, upon mere
diet for a term of years, varying from two as an average
to five and even seven as the extreme period. This
custom is named Gaboi by the Bodo — Gharjya by the
Dhimals."
When the preliminaries have been arranged, the bride-
DHIMAL. BODO. 41
groom proceeds to the house of the bride, in procession
with his friends. Two females attend him. The business
of these is " to put red lead or oil on the bride elect's
head, when the procession has reached her home. There
a refection is prepared, after partaking of which, the pro-
cession returns, conducting the bride elect to the house
of the groom's parents. So far the same rite is common
to the Bodo and Dhimal — the rest is peculiar to each.
Among the Dhimals, the Deoshi now proceeds to propi-
tiate the gods by offerings. Data and Bidata who pre-
side over wedlock are invoked, and betel-leaf and red lead
are presented to them. The bride and groom elect are
next placed side by side, and each furnished with five
pauns, with which they are required to feed each other,
while the parents of the groom cover them with a sheet,
upon which the Deoshi, by sprinkling holy water sancti-
fies and completes the nuptials. Among the Bodo the
bride elect is anointed at her own home with oil ; the
elders or the Deoshi perform the sacred part of the cere-
mony, which consists in the sacrifice of a cock and a hen,
in the respective names of the groom and bride, to the
sun : and next, the groom, rising, makes salutation to the
bride's parents, and the bride, similarly, attests her future
duty of reverence and obedience towards her husband's
parents ; when the nuptials are complete. A feast fol-
lows both with Bodo and Dhimals, but is less costly
among the former than among the latter — as is said,
because the higher price paid for his wife by the Bodo
incapacitates him for giving so costly an entertainment.
The marriage feast of the Dhimals is alleged to cost thirty
or forty rupees sometimes, the festivities being prolonged
through two and even three days ; whereas four to six —
rarely ten rupees suffice for the nuptial banquet of a Bodo.
42 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
" The Bodo and Dhimals both alike bury the dead, im-
mediately after decease, with simple but decent reve-
rence, though no fixed burial ground nor artificial tomb
is in use to mark the last resting place of those most
dear in life, because the migratory habits of the people
would render such usages nugatory. The family and
friends form a funeral procession, which bears the dead
in silence to the grave. The body being interred, a
few stones are piled loosely upon the grave to prevent
disturbance by jackals and ratels, rather than to mark
the spot, and some food and drink are laid upon the
grave ; when the ceremony is suspended, and the party
disperses. Friends are purified by mere ablution in the next
stream and at once resume their usual cares. The family
are unclean for three days, after which, besides bathing
and shaving, they need to be sprinkled with holy water by
their elders or priest. They are then restored to purity and
forthwith proceed to make preparations for a funeral
banquet, by the sacrifice of a hog to Mainou or Timang, of
a cock to Batho or Pochima, according to the nation.
When the feast has been got ready and the friends are
assembled, before sitting down they all repair, once again, to
the grave, when the nearest of kin to the deceased, taking
an individual's usual portion of food and drink, solemnly
presents them to the dead with these words, ' Take and
eat : heretofore you have eaten and drunk with us ; you can
do so no more ; you were one of us ; you can be so no
longer : we come no more to you : come you not to us.1
And thereupon the whole party break and cast on the
grave a bracelet of thread priorly attached, to this end,
to the wrist of each of them. Next the party proceed to
the river and bathe, and having thus lustrated themselves,
they repair to the banquet, and eat, drink, and make merry
DHIMAL. BODO. 43
as though they were never to die ! A funeral costs the
Dhimals from four to eight rupees — something more to
the Bodo, who practise more formality on the occasion, and
to whom is peculiar the singular leave-taking of the dead
just described."
The details relating to the priesthood, and to the fes-
tivals of the Bodo tribes, will best indicate the nature
of their religion. The list of the Bodo gods is very
nearly the list of the Bodo rivers. Batho, however, the
chief god, is no river but a plant ; one of the Euphor-
beace. Mainon is Batho's wife. All diseases are referred
to preternatural influence. Oaths and ordeals are very
general.
Rites and ceremonies. — The rites of the Bodo and
Dhimal religions are entirely similar and " consist of offer-
ings, sacrifices, and prayers. The prayers are few and
simple, when stript of their mummery ; and necessarily so,
being committed solely to the memories of a non-heredi-
tary and very trivially instructed and mutable priesthood.
They consist of invocations of protection for the people
and their crops and domestic animals ; of deprecations of
wrath when sickness, murrain, drought, blight, or the
ravages of wild animals, prevail ; and thanksgivings when
the crops are safely housed, or recent troubles are passed.
The offerings consist of milk, honey, parched rice, eggs,
flowers, fruits, and red lead or cochineal : the sacrifices of
hogs, goats, fowls, ducks, and pigeons — most commonly
hogs and fowls. Sacrifices are deemed more worthy than
offerings, so that all the higher deities, without reference
to their supposed benevolence or malevolence of nature,
receive sacrifices — all the lesser deities, offerings only.
Libations of fermented liquor always accompany sacrifice
— because, to confess the whole truth, sacrifice and feast
44 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
are commutable words, and feasts need to be crowned by
copious potations ! Malevolence appears to be attributed
to very few of the gods, though of course all will resent
neglect ; but, in general, their natures are deemed bene-
volent ; and hence the absence of all savage or cruel rites.
All diseases, however, are ascribed to supernatural agency.
The sick man is supposed to be possessed by one of the
deities, who racks him with pains, as a punishment for
impiety or neglect of the god in question. Hence, not
the mediciner, but the exorcist is summoned to the sick
man's aid. The exorcist is called, both by the Bodo and
Dhimals, Ojha, and he operates as follows. Thirteen leaves,
each with a few grains of rice upon it, are placed by the
exorcist in a segment of a circle before him to represent
the deities. The Ojha, squatting on his hams before the
leaves causes a pendulum attached to his thumb by a
string to vibrate before them, repeating invocations the
while. The god who has possessed the sick man, is indi-
cated by the exclusive vibration of the pendulum towards
his representative leaf, which is then taken apart, and the
god in question is asked, what sacrifice he requires? a
buffalo, a hog, a fowl, or a duck to spare the sufferer. He
answers (the Ojha best knows how !) a hog ; and it is
forthwith vowed by the sick man and promised by the
exorcist, but only paid when the former has recovered.
On recovery the animal is sacrificed, and its blood offered
to the offended deity. I witnessed the ceremony myself
among the Dhimals, on which occasion the thirteen deities
invoked were Pdchima or Warang, Timai or Berang,
Lakhim, Konoksiri, Menchi, Chima, Danto, Chadiing,
Aphoi', Biphdi, Andheman (Aphun), Tatopatia (Baphun),
and Shuti. A Bodo exorcist would proceed precisely in
the same manner, the only difference in the ceremony
DHIMAL. — BODO. 45
being the invocation of the Bodo gods instead of the
Dhimal ones.
" The great festivals of the year are three or four. The
first is held in December-January, when the cotton crop
is ready. It is called Shurkhar by the Bodo, Harejata by
the Dhimals. The second is held in February-March.
It is named Wagalend by the Bodo, who alone observe it.
The Bodo name for the third, which is celebrated in July-
August, when the rice comes into ear, is Phulthepno.
The Dhimals call it Gavi puja. The fourth great festival
is held in October, and is named Ai huno by the Bodo
— Pochima paka by the Dhimals. The first three of
these festivals are consecrated to the elemental gods
and to the interests of agriculture. They are celebrated
abroad, not at home (generally on the banks of a river),
whence attendance on them is called Hagron hudong or
madai hudong, ' going forth to worship " in contradistinc-
tion to the style of the fourth great festival, which is devoted
to the household gods and is celebrated at home. The
Wagaleno, or bamboo festival of the Bodo, I witnessed
in the spring of this year, and will describe it as a sample
of the whole. Proceeding from Siligori to Pankhabari
with Dr. Campbell, we came upon a party of Bodo in
the bed of the river, within the Saul forest, or rather,
were drawn off the road by the noise they made. It
was a sort of chorus of a few syllables, solemnly and
musically incanted, which, on reaching the spot was found
to be uttered by thirteen Bodo men, who were drawn up
in a circle facing inwards, and each carrying a lofty bam-
boo pole decked with several tiers of wearing apparel and
crowned with a Chour or yak's tail. Within the circle
were three men, one of whom with an instrument like this
( I I ) in his hands danced to the music, waving his
46 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
weapon downwards on one side and so over the head, and
then downwards on the other side and again over the head.
He moved round the margin of the circle in the centre of
which stood two others, one a Deoshi or priest, and the
other an attendant or servitor called Phantwal. The
priest, clothed in red cotton but not tonsured or otherwise
distinguished from the rest of the party, muttered an in-
vocation, whereof the burden or chorus was taken up by
the thirteen forming the ring above noticed. The servitor
had a water-pot in one hand and a brush in the other,
and from time to time, as the rite proceeded, this person
moved out of the circle to sprinkle with the holy water
another actor in this strange ceremony and a principal one
too. This is the Dedda, or the possessed, who when filled
with the god answers by inspiration to the questions of
the priests as to the prospects of the coming season.
When we first discerned him, he was sitting on the ground
panting, and rolling his eyes so significantly that I at once
conjectured his function. Shortly afterwards, the rite
still proceeding, the D66da got up, entered the circle and
commenced dancing with the rest, but more wildly. He
held a short staff in his hand, with which, from time to
time, he struck the bedizened poles, one by one, and low-
ering it as he struck, The chief dancer with the odd-
shaped instrument waxed more and more vehement in his
dance ; the inspired grew more and more maniacal ; the
music more and more rapid ; the incantation more and
more solemn and earnest ; till at last, amid a general
lowering of the heads of the decked bamboo poles, so that
they met and formed a canopy over him, the Deoda went
off in an affected fit, and the ceremony closed without any
revelation — a circumstance which must be ascribed to the
presence of the sceptical strangers ; for it is faith alone that
DHIMAL, BODO. 47
worketh miracles and only among and for the faithful.
This ceremony is performed annually by the Rajah of Si-
kim's orders, or rather with his sanction of the usages of
his subjects ; is addressed to the sun, the moon, the ele-
mental gods, and, above all, to the rivers; and is designed
to ensure health and plenty in the coming year, as well as
to ascertain, beforehand, its promise or prospect through
the revelations of the Deoda. With regard to the festival
sacred to the national or homebred (nooni) gods, called
Aihuno* by the Bodo, and Pochima paka by the
Dhimals, it is to be observed that the rite, like the se-
parate class of deities adored thereby, is more distinctively
Bodo than Dhimal. With both people the pre-emi-
nence of water among the elements is conspicuous ; but
whereas the river gods of the Dhimals have nearly ab-
sorbed all the rest, elementary or other, the household
gods of the Bodo stand conspicuously distinguished from the
fluviatile deities. The Pochima and Timang of the Dhi-
mals are one or both rivers : the Batho and Mainang of
the Bodo are neither of them rivers, and their interparietal
rites are as clearly distinguished from the rites performed
abroad to the fluviatile and other elemental gods. How-
ever, the rites of Batho and Mainou are participated by
deities of elementary and watery nature, and, on the
other hand, the Dhimals assert that Pochima and Timai
have a two-fold character, one of river gods (Dhorla and
Tishta), and one of supreme gods ; and they that are
adored, separately, in these two characters, the Pochima
paka, or home-rite of October, being appropriated to them
in the latter capacity of that of supreme gods. I have
not witnessed the Pochima paka, and therefore speak with
* Ai or Aya is the goddess Kamakya of Kamrup, vis genetruc naturae, typed
by the Bhaga or Yoni.
48 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
hesitation. The Ai huno is performed as follows. The
friends and family being assembled, including as many
persons as the master of the house can afford to feast, the
Dedshi or priest enters the enclosure or yard of the house,
in the centre of which is invariably planted a Sij or Eu-
phorbia, as the representative of Batho who is the family
as well as national god of the Bodo. The Batho, thus
represented, the Deoshi offers prayers, and sacrifices a
cock. He then proceeds into the house, adores Mainou, and
sacrifices to her a hog. Next, the priest, the family, and
all the friends proceed to some convenient and pleasant
spot in the vicinity, previously selected, and at which
a little temporary shed has been erected as an altar, and
there, with due ceremonies, another hog is sacrificed to
Agrang, a he-goat to Manasho and to Buli, and a fowl,
duck, or pigeon (black, red, or white, according to the
special and well known taste of each god) to each of the
remaining nine of the Nooni madai. The blood of the
sacrifice belongs to the gods — the flesh to his worshippers,
and these now hold a high feast, at which beer and
tobacco are freely used to animate the joyous conclave,
but not spirits, nor opium, nor hemp. The goddess
Mainou is represented in the interior of each house, by a
bamboo post, about three feet high, fixed in the ground,
and surmounted by a small earthen cup filled with rice.
Before this symbol is the great annual sacrifice of the
hog above noted, performed ; and before this, the females
of the family once a month, make offerings of eggs. For
the males, due attention to the four annual festivals is
deemed sufficient in prosperous and healthful seasons.
But sickness or scarcity always begets special rites and
ceremonies, suited to the circumstances of the calamity,
and addressed more particularly to the elemental gods,
DHIMAL. — BODO. 49
if the calamity be drought, or blight, or devastations of
wild animals — to the household gods, if it be sickness.
Hunters, likewise, and fishers, when they go forth to the
chase, sacrifice a fowl to the Sylvan gods, to promote
their success ; and lastly, those who have a petition to
prefer to their superiors, conceive that a similar propitia-
tion of Jishim and Mishim, or of the Chiris, will tend to
the fulfilment of their requests. And this, I think, is
nearly the whole amount of rites and ceremonies, which
their religion prescribes to the Bodo and Dhimais. And
anxious as I am fully to illustrate the topic, I will not
try the patience of my readers by describing all that
variety of black victims and white, of red victims and
blue, which each particular deity is alleged to prefer ;
first, because the subject is intrinsically trifling; and second
because the diverse statements of my informants lead me to
suspect, that the matter is optional or discretionary with
each individual priest prescribing these minutiae. I have
mentioned the rude symbols proper to Batho and Mainou
None of the other gods seem to have any at all, though
a low line of kneaded clay attached to the Thali that sur-
rounds the sacred Euphorbia in the yards of the Bodo is said
to stand for the rest of the divinities who, as I have already
said, are wont to be worshipped collectively rather than in-
dividually; and thus the sun, the moon, and the earth, though
adored by Bodo and by Dhimal, have no separate rites, but
are included in those appropriated to the elemental gods.
Witchcraft is universally dreaded by both Bodo and Dhi-
mal. The names of the craft and of its professors, male
and female, will be found in the vocabulary. Witches
(Dain and Mhai') are supposed to owe their noxious power
to their own wicked studies, or to the aid of preternatural
beings. When any person is afilicted, the elders assemble
50 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
and summon three Ojhiis or exorcists, with whose aid and
that of a cane freely used, the elders endeavour to extort
from the witch a confession of the fact and the motives.
By dint of questioning and of beating, the witch is gene-
rally brought to confession, when he or she is asked to
remove the spell, and to heal the sufferer, means of pro-
pitiating preternatural allies (if their agency be alleged)
being at the same time tendered to the witch, who is, how-
ever, forthwith expelled the district, and put across the
next river, with the concurrence of the local authorities.
No other sorcery or black art save that of witches is known ;
nor palmistry, augury, astrology, nor, in a word, any other
supposed command of the future than that described in
the ' Wa galeno' as the attribute (for the nonce) of the
Deoda or vates. The evil eye causes some alarm to Bodo
and to Dhimal who call it mogon nango and mi nojo re-
spectively, and who cautiously avoid the evil-eyed person,
but cannot eject him from the community. The influence
of the evil eye is sought to be neutralised by offerings of
parched millet and eggs to Khoja Kajah and Mansha Ra-
jah— Dii minores who find no place in my catalogue, ample
as it is. Moish madai, I am told, likewise claims a place
in the Bodo Pantheon, and a distinguished place, too, as
the protector of this forest- dwelling people from beasts of
prey, and especially the tiger.
" Priesthood. — The priesthood of the Bodo and Dhimals
is entirely the same, even to the nomenclature, which with
both people expresses the three sorts of clergy by the terms
Deoshi, Dhami and Ojha. The Dhami (seniores priores !)
is the district priest. The De6shi the village priest ; and
the Ojha the village exorcist. The Deoshi has under him
one servitor called Phantwal. There is a Deoshi in nearly
every village. Over a small circle of villages one Dhami
DHIMAL. BODO. 51
presides and possesses a vaguely defined but universally
recognised control over the Dedshis of his district. The
general constitutions and functions of the clerical body have
already been fully explained. Priests are subject to no
peculiar restraints, nor marked by any external sign of
diverse dress or other. The connexion between pastor and
flock is full of liberty for the latter, who collectively can
eject their priest if they disapprove him, or individually can
desert him for another if they please. He marries and
cultivates like his flock, and all that he can claim from
them for his services is, first, a share of every animal sacri-
ficed by him, and second, three days' help from each of
his flock (the grown males) per annum, towards the clear-
ing and cultivation of the land, he holds on the same terms
with them, and which have already been explained.
Whoever thinks fit to learn the forms of offering, sacri-
fice, and accompanying invocation, can be a priest ; and
if he get tired of the profession, he can throw it up
when he will. Ojhas stand not on the same footing with
Dhamis and Deoshis : they are remunerated solely by
fees ; but into either office — priests or exorcists — the
form of induction is similar, consisting merely of an in-
troduction by the priests or exorcists of the neophyte to
the gods, the first time he officiates. One Dhami and
two Deoshis usually induct a Deoshi — three Ojhas, an
Ojha ; and the formula is literally that of an introduc-
tion— ' this is so and so, who proposes, O ye gods ! to
dedicate himself to your service : mark how he performs
the rites, and, if correctly, accept them at his hands.' v
These remarks will conclude with the notice of an eth-
nological question of primary importance, but not yet laid
before the reader, viz. : the extent to which certain varie-
ties of the human species can live and thrive in localities
E 2
52 SERIFOEM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
which are either deleterious or deadly to others. Some
rough facts of the kind in question are generally known ;
such, for instance, as the tolerance on the part of the Negro
of the heat and malaria of the tropical climates. A simi-
lar tolerance of climatologic influences otherwise deleterious
is shewn by the Bodo, and its allied tribes. According
to Mr. Hodgson, none but themselves can live in their own
localities; since "the Saul forest everywhere, but espe-
cially to the east of the Kosi, is malarious to an extent
which no human beings can endure, save the remark-
able races, which for ages have made it their dwelling-
place. To all others, European or native, it is deadly from
April to November. Yet the Dhimal, the Bodo, the
Kichak, the Tharii, the Den war, not only live but thrive
in it, exhibiting no symptoms whatever of that dreadful
stricken aspect of countenance and form which marks
the victim of malaria."
The converse of this position, or the incapacity of the
Bodo, &c., for living elsewhere, is also mentioned by Mr.
Hodgson, but with an expression of doubt as to its ac-
curacy. " The Bodo and Dhimals, whom I communicated
with, alleged that they cannot endure the climate of the
open plains, where the heat gives them fevers. This is a
mere excuse for their known aversion to quit the forest ;
for their eastern brethren dwell and till like natives in the
open plains of Assam, just as the Kdls of south Bihar
(Dhangars) do now in every part of the plains of Bihar
and Bengal, in various sites abroad, and lastly in the lofty
sub-Himalayas.'"
The Bodo tribes will again be brought prominently
forward when the ethnology of the peninsula of India is
discussed.
DHIMAL. BODO. 53
THE TRIBES OF SIKKIM AND NEPAL SPEAKING MONOSYL-
LABIC LANGUAGES.
Each of these countries, although south of the Hima-
layas, and although to a great extent Hindu in religion,
government, and language, must be looked upon as coun-
tries of which the aboriginal population is an extension
of that of Tibet. The tribes of Sikkim and Nepal are
Cis- Himalayan Tibetans ; the word Tibetan being used in
its general sense.
1. The Magars. — Imperfectly Braminical in their reli-
gion, with a separate monosyllabic language, and remains
of their old Paganism. Their priests were called Damis*
2. The Gurungs. — Adherents to Buddhism. Inhabitants
of the same localities with the Magars ; only higher in
the mountains.
3. The Jariyas. — Indianized.
4. The Newars. — Probably the oldest inhabitants of
Nepal. Adherents to Buddhism ; alphabet derived from
the Devanagari.
5. The Murmis. — Buddhist. Language like, but differ-
ent from, that of the Newars.
6. The Kirata. — Eastern Nepal ; Buddhist.
7. Limbu. — Same localities as the Kirata : differing in
language.
8. The Lepchas. — Inhabitants of Sikkim. Have a tra-
dition that they lately migrated from Tibet, crossing the
mountains ; also that they then had a native alphabet,
since lost.
CHE'PA'NG.
Locality. — Forests of Nepaul, west of the Great Valley.
Tribes. — Chepang, Kusunda, and Haiyu.
Vocabularies. — One only known, i.e. that of the Chepang.
Authority. — B. H. Hodgson, Journal of the Asiatic Society, Dec. 1848,
No. CXCVII1.
Dhtimi, in Bodo. Dom, in other allied dialects.
54 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
Respecting the ethnology of these tribes (or rather of
the Chepang, the one best known), Mr. Hodgson's obser-
vations are as follows : —
1. That their form and colour is the form and
colour of the aborigines of India.
2. That their language is closely allied to the language
of Bhutan.
The Garo, the Bodo, the Dhimal, and Chepang, will
come under consideration again ; these being the tribes
which will supply the chief facts connected with the
question as to the affinity or non-affinity between the
great Tibetan and Indian families. At present it is
sufficient to draw attention to the state of opinion upon
this point. With few exceptions amongst the English
(Dr. Bird and Mr. Hodgson being the most decided), both
philologists and physiologists consider the line of demarca-
tion to be an exceedingly broad one.
Tribes supposed to be essentially monosyllabic, although
speaking a language admitted to be Indian. — These are the
Assamese of the Lower part of the valley, and the
Raibansi Kooch.
1. Assam. — That the languages of Upper Assam are
those of a variety of rude tribes, speaking a monosyllabic
tongue, has already been seen. The Lower Assam lan-
guage is Bengali. Were the Bengali the aborigines of
Lower Assam ? I believe that no one holds this doctrine.
Is the present language that of Bengalis, who have dis-
placed an aboriginal monosyllabic population ? Perhaps.
Or has an original monosyllabic population adopted the
Bengali? No person is better capable of forming an
opinion on this point than Mr. Hodgson ; and his opinion
is for the last of these views.
2. The converted Kooch. — Residents, in contact with
DHIMAL. BODO. 55
the Bodo and Dhimal, of the Sub-Himalayan range, be-
tween the north-west corner of Assam and Sikkim. The
higher class of the converted Kooch are Brahminists :
the lower Mahometans. Both call themselves Raibansi.
The notice of the Kooch kingdom of Hajo, explains this
term.
Towards the close of the fifteenth century, Hajo founded
a Kooch empire, which extended beyond the limits of
the Assam valley, into Morung and Bengal. His daugh-
ter, for he left no sons, was married to a Bodo chief, the
Bodos being Pagans. These two divisions of the abori-
gines held their own against the Moslem and Hindus
equally ; but only for a while. Visva Sinh, the con-
queror's grandson, became a convert to Hinduism, the
majority of his subjects to the religion of Mahomet ; re-
nouncing, at the same time, their original name. A
portion, however, remained unconverted, and remain so ;
and these agree with the Bodo in appearance, manners,
and customs, and are said to do so in language also.
If so, and if the Raibansi Kooch be so closely allied to
them as they are described to be, they must, although
speaking a dialect closely allied to the Assam Bengali,
be monosyllabic in origin.
The whole details, however, of the Kooch may be found
in Mr. Hodgson's Dissertation.
*****
The Chinese civilization must be taken as the measure
of the moral development of the monosyllabic nations ;
a form to which the wow-culture of the tribes represented
by the Bodo and Garo, stands in prominent contrast. I
do not think it necessary to tell the reader what Chinese
civilization is. It is sufficiently known in itself; its afiinity
with that of the Indo-Chinese nations is known also ; and
56 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
equally well-known is its distinct character, as compared
with the other civilizations of the world — Asiatic as well as
European.
A point of more ethnographical importance, is the ques-
tion as to its antiquity ; since this involves the higher
question still — as to the extent to which it is a self-
developed phenomenon, or one effected by influences from
without. I am prepared to admit without much criticism,
the statements of travellers as to the possession, on the part
of the Chinese, of several of the most important arts and
discoveries belonging to the civilization of Europe — of the
art of printing, of paper-money, of a certain amount of
astronomical knowledge, of the mariner's compass, and
even of gunpowder. There is no reason why the Chinese,
when once civilized, should not have worked out an average
amount of discovery in the way of detail. The point upon
which I doubt is the antiquity of that civilization, and still
more the self-evolution of it ; a necessary consequence of
such antiquity.
Within the historical period, three civilizing influences
have, at different times, been introduced into China, and
each has had time to do its work in.
I begin with the latest, the European.
1. The Portuguese, Dutch, English, and American. — This
may be disposed of briefly. It has not changed the Chinese
cultivation in anything essential.
2. The Nestorian Christians. — Date between 600 and
1200 A.D. The extent of the influence of these early
missionaries will be examined in the section upon the
Syrians. It is the second of the great external civilizing
influences that have acted upon China. Without carry-
ing my scepticism so far as to limit the antiquity of the
Chinese history to the epoch of the Nestorians, I cannot
CHINA. 57
but put a high importance on the introduction of Syrian
literature, Syrian theology, and Syrian science.
3. The Buddhism of India. — This is generally believed
to have been introduced into China in the first century
after Christ. I have not seen the translation of the
Annals of the Han Dynasty by the Archimandrite Hya-
cinth ; so that I cannot say at what period they profess
to represent cotemporary events. Whatever, however,
that period may be, it is the extreme date of Chinese
history : now this cannot be earlier than B. c. 200 ; that
being the epoch when the Han dynasty began to reign.
Viewed in respect to our reasons for concluding that
such or such a fact took place, there are five grounds
of belief: —
1. Historical grounds. — Here the facts are believed on
testimony ; the testimony of men who had means of
knowing them. That such witnesses should have lived
at the time when the facts in question took place, is the
great and essential condition of their credibility.
2. The belief ex necessitate. — A fact which, at the time
of its first announcement could only have been known
from having been witnessed by a cotemporary, but which
at some later period is shown from other facts to have
been real, is to be admitted unreservedly ; the evidence in
its favour being of the highest kind. Of this sort are
such astronomical facts as, in the present state of our
knowledge, can be ascertained independently of experience,
but which, when first notified, could only have been ascer-
tained ly experience.
3. Traditional Grounds. — Here the immediate authority
to the person who is informed of a real or supposed fact, is
some one who had not the possibility of knowing the facts
in question from being contemporary with them ; but who
•58 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLID.E.
heard it from some one who was so contemporary — or
else heard it from some one who heard it from some one,
&c., ad inftnitum. Here the statements are possible
or impossible, probable or improbable. If possible, they
may be true ; if probable, they are likely to be so.
In neither case, however, are they historical facts ; that is,
there is no testimony founded upon a knowledge of the event.
4. The true elements in unreasonable traditions. — A series
of necessary and connected antecedents to a given effect,
inductively obtained is an ethnological ground of belief, or
an ethnological fact ; and it is based on inductive reason-
ing. A series of unnecessary and unconnected antecedents,
derived from the imagination, is a false ground of belief,
and in most cases this takes the form of mythological tradi-
tion. It does not, however, necessarily follow, that, because
a body of tradition may, on the whole, be unreasonable,
or even impossible, it is therefore wholly deficient in
grounds of belief. The doctrine ex nihilo nihil may here
apply. It may fairly be argued, that, absolute invention is
so difficult, that in all error there is some truth. Granted.
It may, then, be argued, that a criticism analytical enough to
evolve the residuum is a scientific (or literary) possibility.
Granted. But who is the critic? I fear that his appear-
ance is optandum magis quam sperandum.
5. The inductive method consists in the assumption of
certain causes as the necessary antecedents of a known event ;
and they are good or bad according to their scientific or
unscientific character. To take as the first fact in the
history of Greece, the existence of a poem like the Iliad
in the ninth century B.C., to ascertain the state of society
that it implies, and to appreciate the civilization involved
therein, is an ethnological argument ; whilst, to assume
a certain amount of time for such to have grown up
CHINA. 59
in, is an argument from effect to cause, and is good or
bad, according as it assumes no more than is absolutely
necessary.
. Now, if we ask upon which of these five principles we
believe in the antiquity of the Chinese civilization, it will
certainly not be the first.
I am not prepared to wholly exclude the second ; indeed,
I have not the means of forming an independent one on
the subject. At the same time I know that, in respect to
the Chinese astronomical calculations many good judges are
incredulous, and many of those who are not so are at
variance in their opinions.
The third is essentially admissible for a limited period
only.
The fifth remains open for consideration.
In the application of what may be called the doctrine of
necessary antecedents, I believe, for my own part, that we
must take the China as described by Marco Polo in the
fifteenth century; and if we put the development there
exhibited on a level with that of the China of the present
century, we are giving to the advocate of antiquity full as
much, perhaps more, than he can fairly demand. I sub-
mit that the time necessary for the growth of such a
phenomenon need not exceed a few centuries.
The residuum, then, of truth that is capable of being
evolved out of unreasonable tradition, is all that the present
writer can leave to the advocates of a Chinese antiquity.
He would willingly, however, find that their astronomy
and history will bear a more severe criticism than he
imagines they are likely to do.
At present, he believes that whatever is older than their
religion, is reasonable tradition for a limited period (say a
century), and unreasonable tradition beyond it.
60 SERIFORM ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
In confining the growth of Chinese civilization to the last
eighteen hundred years, and in expressing my dissent from
the doctrine that it was an indigenous, self-developed phe-
nomenon, I by no means underrate the import of certain,
undoubted facts. The archaeology of their alphabet is too
little known to enable us to connect it with any foreign
one ; as well as too scanty to exhibit its evolution as a
home growth. Still it is a remarkable phenomenon.
Still more so is the phenomenon of their government and
political organization. To deny to China a great influence
upon the history of the world, simply because its civiliza-
tion has been confined to its own immediate sphere, and
its movements have been limited to the pale of its own
dominions, is erroneous. China alone is a great section of
the world. Hence the circle, though limited, is large ;
and the simple, single fact of so much sameness over so
large a country, is a great one. How is this to be ac-
counted for ? Was the original area occupied by the first
possessors of China so great, whilst the changes that have
set in since the time of possession have been so small ? or
has the uniformity been purchased by the assimilation of
a multiplicity of small and distinct tribes? Or has it
been by their annihilation ?
Whatever may be the answer to these questions sup-
plied by future researches, the Chinese are one of the great
historical influences, and, if we contrast the peaceful habits
of an agricultural population with the unsettled condition
of a nation of nomads, and the security of a large con-
solidated government with the slave-dealing warfares that
exist between thickly congregated petty tribes, we must
allow that influence to have been a beneficial one.
TURANIAN STOCK. 61
TURANIAN STOCK.
II.
Physical conformation. — Mongol.
Languages. — Not monosyllabic.
Distribution. — Continental .
Area. — From Kamskatka to Norway, and from the Arctic Ocean to the
frontiers of Tibet and Persia — nearly but not wholly continuous.
Countries included. — The northern parts of the Chinese empire, greater part of
Siberia, Mongolia, Tartary, Eastern Turkestan, Asia Minor, Turkey, Hungary,
Finland, Esthonia, Lapland.
DIVISIONS.
1. THE MONGOLIAN BRANCH.
2. THE TUNGUSIAN BRANCH.
3. THR TURK BRANCH.
4. THE UGRIAN BRANCH.
The reader is now asked to prepare himself for the
transition from languages of a monosyllabic type, to lan-
guages other than monosyllabic ; and from aptotic tongues
to tongues where the inflexions are numerous.
He is also asked to prepare himself for a transition, in
the way of physical conformation, from a structure ap-
proaching the Mongol type, to one essentially and typically
Mongol.
In the former case the change is greater than in the
latter.
Why is this ? Why do not the changes go pari passw,
so that the two tests should coincide, and so that it should
be a matter of indifference which of the two we started
with?
62 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
We get at the answer to this by remembering that
physical changes and philological changes, may go on at
different rates.
A thousand years may pass over two nations undoubt-
edly of the same origin ; and which were, at the beginning
of those thousand years, of the same complexion, form,
and language.
At the end of those thousand years there shall be a
difference. With one the language shall have changed
rapidly, the physical structure slowly.
With the other the physical conformation shall have
been modified by a quick succession of external influences,
whilst the language shall have stayed as it was.
With an assumed or proved original identity on each side,
the difference in the rate of action on the part of the diffe-
rent influences, is the key to all discrepancies between the two
tests. The language may remain in statu quo, whilst the
hair, complexion, and bones change ; or the hair, com-
plexion, and osteology may remain in statu quo, whilst the
language changes.
Apparently this leaves matters in an unsatisfactory
condition ; in a way which allows the ethnologist any
amount of assumption he chooses. Apparently it does so ;
but it does so in appearance only. In reality we have
ways and means of determining which of the two changes
is the likelier.
We know what modifies form. Change of latitude,
climate, sea-level, conditions of subsistence, conditions of
clothing, &c., do this; all (or nearly all) such changes
being physical.
We know, too, (though in a less degree) what modifies
language. New wants gratified by objects with new
names, new ideas requiring new terms, increased inter-
MONGOLIANS. 63
course between man and man, tribe and tribe, nation and
nation, &c. do this ; all (or nearly all) such changes being
of a moral nature.
Hence in some cases we can ascertain upon which of
the two elements of our classification, the physical or the
moral, the greatest amount of influences has been at
work.
It is necessary to remark upon these points because it
is only physically that the tribes of the present division
are nearest akin to those of the previous ones. Had simi-
larity of language been the test, a different and a more
distant class of nations would have formed the subject of
the present section.
THE MONGOLIAN BRANCH OF THE TURANIAN STOCK.
Distribution. — High Asia. East and West, from the Altai Mountains to the
Wall of China ; North and South, from the Tungus boundary to Tibet ; con-
terminous with the Turks, southern Sambeids, Tungus, Chinese, and Tibetans.
— The Volga, by migration.
Political Relations.- -Subject to, a. China; 6. Russia.
Religion. Chiefly Buddhism.
Particular Divisions. Mongols Proper, Burials, Olot of Dzungaria ; the
Kalmuks of Russia ; the Eimak of Persia.
MONGOLIANS.
Localities. — 1. Buriats. Parts about the lake Baikal, chiefly in the Russian
territory, conterminous with the Samcieids, and Manchus.
2. Olot, Dzungarian, or Kalmuk Mongolians, a. The most western of the
family, conterminous with the Turks of Yarkend, and Independent Tartary. b.
Kalmuks of the tribes Dlirbet and Torgod, who in 1662 crossed the Yaik, and
settled on the Volga. The majority of them returned to Mongolia in 1770.
These belonged to the Olots.
3. Mongolians Proper, of the Desert of Shamo, and the Kalkas. Conterminous
with China.
4. Eimaks, Northern Persia ; isolated tribes.
The extent to which the Mongolian physiognomy is the
type and sample of one of the most remarkable divisions
of the human race, is one of the facts which gives this
division prominence.
64 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
The extent to which its tribes are the type and sample
of a pastoral and nomadic race, is another.
Their part in the history of the world is a third. This
alone will be enlarged upon. The two other points are
merely indicated.
The great part played by the Mongolians, as devastat-
ing conquerors, begins and ends with Zingiz-Khan and
his immediate successors. It begins with him ; because al-
though fragmentary and obscure notices of their Mongolian
neighbours are said to be found in the Chinese annals, it
is only in the thirteenth century that we find definite and
cotemporaneous historical evidence. It ends with his suc-
cessors in the fourth or fifth generation, notwithstanding
the appearance which it takes of being continued further ;
inasmuch as the conquests of Tamerlane are Turk rather
than Mongolian, and the Great Mogul empire of India was
Turk rather than Mongolian also.
To this confusion between the share taken by the two
great pastoral nations of Central Asia, in spilling the blood
of their kind, and in devastating the world, the indefinite
use of the term Tartar has done much to contribute.
Few writers when they heard of Tartar victories, asked
whether the particular warriors were akin to the Mon-
golians who conquered China under Kublai-Khan, or to
the Turks, who terrified Europe under Suliman. Yet
such is the difference between these two divisions of the
great Turanian stock. For the sake of avoiding any such
further ambiguities, I have forbidden myself the use of
the word Tartar from this time forwards, throughout the
present work.
Other probable reasons for the confusion are of a real
character. I believe that, in some cases, the soldiers were
Turk, whilst the captains were Mongolian ; and that, some-
MONGOLIANS. 65
times, descent from the high blood of Zingiz-Khan was
claimed by Turk chieftains of another stock and pedi-
gree. At any rate, the careful examiner of any history of
this people — excepting for the times of Zingiz-Khan, and
his immediate successors — will find it very difficult to dis-
engage the Mongolian exploits from the Turk ; and will,
probably after some trouble, come to the conclusion that
the greater share belongs to the latter.
I shall let an eye-witness, Marco Polo, describe the
Mongols of the fourteenth century, in the third generation
from Zingiz-Khan, and before they had taken up the
Buddhist religion of their conquered subjects.
1 . Translation by Marsden, — Chapters XLV — XLVIII.
" It has been an invariable custom, that all the grand
kans, and chiefs of the race of Chingis-kan, should be
carried for interment to a certain lofty mountain, named
Altai ; and in whatever place they may happen to die,
although it should be at the distance of a hundred days1
journey, they are, nevertheless, conveyed thither. It is
likewise the custom, during the progress of removing the
bodies of these princes, for those who form the escort to
sacrifice such persons as they chance to meet on the road,
saying to them, ' Depart for the next world, and there
attend upon your deceased master !' being impressed with
the belief that all whom they thus slay do actually become
his servants in the next life. They do the same also
with respect to horses, killing the best of the stud, in
order that he may have the use of them. When the
corpse of Mongit was transported to this mountain, the
horsemen who accompanied it, having this blind and
horrible persuasion, slew upwards of ten thousand persons
who fell in their way.
" The Tartars never remain fixed, but, as the winter
F
66 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
approaches, remove to the plains of a warmer region, in
order to find sufficient pasture for their cattle ; and in
summer they frequent cold situations in the mountains,
where there is water and verdure, and their cattle are
free from the annoyance of horse-flies and other biting
insects. During two or three months they progressively
ascend higher ground, and seek fresh pasture ; the grass
not being adequate in any one place to feed the multitudes
of which their herds and flocks consist. Their huts or
tents are formed of rods covered with felt, and being
exactly round, and nicely put together, they can gather
them into one bundle, and make them up as packages,
which they carry along with them in their migrations,
upon a sort of car with four wheels. When they have
occasion to set them up again, they always make the
entrance front to the south. Besides these cars, they have
a superior kind of vehicle, upon two wheels, covered
likewise with felt, and so effectually as to protect those
within it from wet, during a whole day of rain. These
are drawn by oxen and camels, and serve to convey their
wives and children, their utensils, and such provisions
as they require. The women it is who attend to their
trading concerns, who buy and sell, and provide every
thing necessary for their husbands and their families ; the
time of the men being entirely devoted to the employment
of hunting and hawking, and matters that relate to the
military life. They have the best falcons in the world, and
also the best dogs. They subsist entirely upon flesh and
milk, eating the produce of their sport, and a certain small
animal, not unlike a rabbit, called by our people Pharaolis
mice, which, during the summer season, are found in great
abundance in the plains. But they likewise eat flesh of
every description, horses, camels, and even dogs, provided
MONGOLIANS. 67
they are fat. They drink mares' milk, which they pre-
pare in such a manner that it has the qualities and flavour
of white wine. They term it in their language kemurs.
" Their women are not excelled in the world for chastity
and decency of conduct, nor for love and duty to their
husbands. Infidelity to the marriage bed is regarded by
them as a vice not merely dishonourable, but of the most
infamous nature ; whilst on the other hand it is admirable
to observe the loyalty of the husbands towards their wives,
amongst whom, although there are perhaps ten or twenty,
there prevails a degree of quiet and union that is highly
laudable. No offensive language is ever heard, their atten-
tion being fully occupied with their traffic (as already
mentioned), and their several domestic employments, such
as the provision of necessary food for the family, the man-
agement of the servants, and the care of the children,
which are amongst them a common concern. And the
more praiseworthy are the virtues of modesty and chastity
in their wives, because the men are allowed the indulgence
of taking as many as they choose. Their expense to the
husband is not great, and on the other hand the benefit
he derives from their trading, and from the occupations in
which they are constantly engaged, is considerable ; on
which account it is, that when he receives a young woman
in marriage, he pays a dower to her parent. The wife
who is the first espoused has the privilege of superior
attention, and is held to be the most legitimate, which
extends also to the children borne by her. In consequence
of this unlimited number of wives, the offspring is more
numerous than amongst any other people. Upon the
death of the father, the son may take to himself the
wives he leaves behind, with the exception of his own
mother. They cannot take their sisters to wife, but upon
F2
68 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
the death of their brothers they can marry their sisters-in-
law. Every marriage is solemnized with great ceremony.
" The doctrine and faith of the Tartars are these. They
believe in a Deity whose nature is sublime and heavenly.
To him they burn incense in censers, and offer up prayers
for the enjoyment of intellectual and bodily health. They
worship another likewise, named Natigay, whose image,
covered with felt or other cloth, every individual preserves
in his house. To this deity they associate a wife and
children, placing the former on his left side, and the latter
before him, in a posture of reverential salutation. Him
they consider as the divinity who presides over their ter-
restrial concerns, protects their children, and guards their
cattle and their grain. They show him great respect, and
at their meals they never omit to take a fat morsel of the
flesh, and with it to grease the mouth of the idol, and at
the same time the mouths of its wife and children. They
then throw out of the door some of the liquor in which
the meat has been dressed, as an offering to the other
spirits. This being done, they consider that their deity
and his family have had their proper share, and proceed to
eat and drink without further ceremony. The rich amongst
these people dress in cloth of gold and silks, with skins of
the sable, the ermin, and other animals. All their accou-
trements are of an expensive kind.
" Their arms are bows, iron maces, and in some instances
spears ; but the first is the weapon at which they are the
most expert, being accustomed from children to employ it
in their sports. They wear defensive armour made of the
thick hides of buffaloes and other beasts, dried by the
fire, and thus rendered extremely hard and strong. They
are brave in battle, almost to desperation, setting little
value upon their lives, and exposing themselves without
MONGOLIANS. 69
hesitation to all manner of danger. Their disposition is
cruel. They are capable of supporting every kind of
privation ; and, when there is a necessity for it, can live
for a month on the milk of their mares, and upon such
wild animals as they may chance to catch. Their horses
are fed upon grass alone, and do not require barley or
other grain. The men are habituated to remain on horse-
back during two days and two nights without dismount-
ing, sleeping in that situation whilst their horses graze.
No people upon earth can surpass them in fortitude under
difficulties, nor show greater patience under wants of
every kind. They are perfectly obedient to their chiefs,
and are maintained at small expense. From these qua-
lities, so essential to the formation of soldiers, it is that
they are fitted to subdue the world, as, in fact, they have
done in regard to a considerable portion of it.
" When one of the great Tartar chiefs proceeds on an
expedition, he puts himself at the head of an army of a
hundred thousand horse, and organises them in the fol-
lowing manner : — He appoints an officer to the command
of every ten men, and others to command a hundred, a
thousand, and ten thousand men respectively. Thus, ten
of the officers commanding ten men take their orders from
him who commands a hundred ; of these, each ten from
him who commands a thousand ; and each ten of these
latter from him who commands ten thousand. By this
arrangement, each officer has only to attend to the ma-
nagement of ten men, or ten bodies of men ; and when
the commander of these hundred thousand men has occa-
sion to make a detachment for any particular service, he
issues his orders to the commanders of ten thousand to
furnish him with a thousand men each ; and these, in like
manner, to the commanders of a thousand, who give their
70 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
orders to those commanding a hundred, until the order
reaches those commanding ten, by whom the number re-
quired is immediately supplied to their superior officers.
A hundred men are in this manner delivered to every officer
commanding a thousand, and a thousand men to every
officer commanding ten thousand. The drafting takes place
without delay, and all are implicitly obedient to their re-
spective superiors. Every company of a hundred men is
denominated a tuc, and ten of these constitute a toman.
" When the army proceeds on service, a body of men
is sent two days1 march in advance, and parties are sta-
tioned upon each flank and in the rear, in order to prevent
its being attacked by surprise. When the service is
distant, they carry but little with them, and that, chiefly,
what is requisite for their encampment, and utensils for
cooking. They subsist for the most part upon milk, as
has been said. Each man has, on an average, eighteen
horses and mares, and when that which they ride is
fatigued, they change it for another. They are provided
with small tents made of felt, under which they shelter
themselves against rain. Should circumstances render it
necessary, in the execution of a duty that requires dis-
patch, they can march for ten days together without
dressing victuals : during which time they subsist upon
the blood drawn from their horses, each man opening a
vein and drinking from his own cattle. They make pro-
vision also of milk, thickened and dried to the state of a
hard paste (or curd), which is prepared in the following
manner. They boil the milk, and skimming off the rich
or creamy part, as it rises to the top, put it into a separate
vessel, as butter ; for so long as that remains in the milk,
it will not become hard. The latter is then exposed to
the sun until it dries. Upon going on service, they carry
MONGOLIANS. 71
with them about ten pounds for each man, and of this,
half a pound is put, every morning, into a leathern bottle
or small outre, with as much water as is thought neces-
sary. By their motion in riding, the contents are
violently shaken, and a thin porridge is produced, upon
which they make their dinner.
" When these Tartars come to engage in battle, they
never mix with the enemy, but keep hovering about him,
discharging their arrows first from one side and then
from the other, occasionally pretending to fly, and during
their flight, shooting arrows backwards at their pursuers,
killing men and horses, as if they were combating face to
face. In this sort of warfare the adversary imagines
he has gained a victory, when in fact he has lost the
battle ; for the Tartars, observing the mischief they have
done him, wheel about, and renewing the fight, overpower
his remaining troops, and make them prisoners in spite of
their utmost exertions.
" Their horses are so well broken-in to quick changes of
movement, that upon the signal given they instantly turn
in every direction; and by these rapid mano3uvres many
victories have been obtained. All that has been here re-
lated is spoken of the original manners of the Tartar chiefs ;
but at the present day they are much corrupted. Those
who dwell at UkaJca, forsaking their own laws, have
adopted the customs of the people who worship idols, and
those who inhabit the eastern provinces have adopted the
manners of the Saracens"
It may now be well to examine the term conquerors of
the world, and to limit it. By following Gibbon,* we may
ascertain what the true Mongolians did conquer, and what
they did not.
* Decline and Fall, vol. viii.
72 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
Death of Zingis-Khan, A.D. 1227. — The work done by
the great founder of the Mongolian empire, was, in the
first instance, the consolidation of separate, and previously
disunited, tribes. As a conqueror, he rather overran
countries and showed the ease with which victories might
be gained than established permanent empires. In this
way he ravaged and subdued : —
1. Northern China. — The southern empire was first sub-
dued by his grandson.
2. Bokhara, Persia, Kharizmia (the parts between Balk
and the Caspian). — I think it likely that, considering the
great number of Turkish tribes that lay between Mongolia
and Persia, the natural hostility they bore to the last-
named country, and the easy terms on which they offered
their swords and valour, there was a considerable Turk
element in the Mongolian army of Persia. Still, I have
nothing beyond the mere probability to allege.
The greatest and widest conquests were effected in the
generation after Zingis : by the nephews of his sons, *'. 0.,
Zingis's grandsons.
Southern China. — Conquered, and permanently con-
quered, by Kublai-Khan. The effect of China upon its
subjugators was that which the Romans attributed to the
conquest of Greece upon themselves. The victors were
moulded to the fashion of the vanquished. The religion,
the dress, and the luxury of China, were adopted by
the Mongolians even during the lifetime of Kublai-Khan ;
to whom Korea, Anam, Pegu, Tibet, and Bengal were
tributary.
Persia.— -By Persia, is meant the half- restored empire
of the Kalifs, so that it includes the whole country from
Bokhara to Arabia, from Samarcand to Bagdad. Holagou
is the grandson identified with this series of conquests ;
MONGOLIANS. 73
which embrace Syria, Asia Minor, and Armenia, and do
not embrace ./Egypt. There the Mongolian was met and
repulsed by the Mameluke.
/Siberia. — Compared with the foregoing one, this was an
ignoble conquest. Still it was made ; and in 1242, the
Samoeids were tributary to the Mongolians.
Tartary, Russia, Poland, Hungary. — The extreme
point westward reached in this, the most distant of the
invasions and conducted by Batoum, was Silesia. Here
also I imagine that some portion of the interjacent Turks
easily lent their help to the conqueror, and joined with him
against such common enemies as the Slavonians. Still I
have no historic evidence to this effect.
To conclude — one hundred and forty years after the
death of Zingis, a revolt of the Chinese expelled the Mon-
golian dynasty. Previous to this, the conquerors of Tar-
tary, Eussia, Bokhara, and Persia had become Tartars,
Russians, Bokharians, and Persians ; in other words they
had renounced or forgotten their original ancestors of
Mongolia.
The Mongol religion is Buddhist; yet their alphabet
is not of either Chinese or Indian origin. The earliest
Mongol conquerors understood the value of literature, and
soon after the death of Zingiz-Khan the language was
reduced to writing ; the alphabet, which was subsequently
extended to the language of the Mantshu nation, having
been adopted from that of the Uighur Turks. Amongst
the Uighur Turks it was introduced by the Nestorian
Christians, an influence of which the importance in these
parts has yet to be duly appreciated. As such, its original
source is the Syriac. Of the Syriac alphabets it is most
like the Palmyrene.
74 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
THE TONGUS BRANCH OF THE TURANIAN STOCK.
Distribution. — East and west, from the sea of Okhotsk, and the penin-
sula of Kamskatka to the Yenisey. North and South (South-East), from
the coast of the Icy Sea, between the Yenisey and Lena, to the Yellow Sea.
Conterminous with the Samoeids, Ostiaks, Yakuts, Turks, Mongols, Chinese,
Koreans, Aino, Koriaks, and Yukahiri.
Political relations. — Subject to a, China, b, Russia.
Religion. — Buddhism, Imperfect Christianity, Paganism.
Particular divisions. — The Tshapojirs on the Lena, the Lamuts on the Sea of
Okhotsk, the Mantshu rulers of China.
Dialects known by vocabularies. — a, Western — Yeniseyan, Tchapojir, Manga-
seiesk, Orotong ; b, Southern — Nerchinsk, Barguzin, Upper Angara, Yakutsk ;
c, Eastern — Okhotsk, Lamut ; d, The Mantshu. Add to these the Niuji, an
ancient dialect known from a Chinese vocabulary, and closely allied to the
Mantshu.
Alphabet. — Mongolian ; applied to the Mantshu dialect only.
General name. — None. Some particular tribes call themselves beye = men;
some, donki=people.
Called by the Ostiaks, Kellem.
„ „ Chinese, Tung-chu.
„ „ Mantshu, Orotuhong.
„ „ Mongols, Kham-noyon.
Authority. — Klaproth's Asia Polyglotta and Sprach-Atlas.
A more northern position, a greater range of climate, an
approach in some cases to the hunter and fisher, rather
than to the pastoral states, a more partial abandonment of
the original Shamanistic Paganism, and a later literature are
the chief points which differentiate the Tungus tribes from
the Mongol. Add to this, that the influence of the Tungus
upon the history of the world is limited to the conquest
of China by the present Mantshu dynasty. In other
matters — indeed in these — the difference between the two
branches is a difference of degree rather than of kind. I
limit my remarks upon the Tungus tribes — whose civiliza-
tion is represented by that of the Mantshus — for the sake
of leaving time and space for a more important branch of
the Turanian stock — the Turk.
Some of the Tungus tribes — e. g. the Tshapojirs —
tattoo their faces.
THE TURKS. 75
THE TURK BRANCH OF THE TURANIAN STOCK.
Distribution. — 1. As a continuous population — East and west — from the neigh-
bourhood of the lake Baikal, 110° E. L. to the eastern boundaries of the Greek
and Slavonic countries of Europe, about 21° E. L. North and south ; from the
northern frontiers of Tibet, and Persia, about 34° N. L., to the country north of
Tobolsk about 59°N.L.
2. As an isolated population — Along the lower course of the Lena, and the
shores of the White Sea, chiefly within the Arctic Circle. These are the Yakut
Turks. They are wholly disconnected from the other Turkish tribes ; and
surrounded by Tungus and Yukahiri tribes.
3. As portions of a mixed population — In China ? , Tibet ? , Mongolia ? ,
Persia, Armenia, the Caucasian countries, Syria, jEgypt, Barbary, Greece,
Albania, and the Slavonic portion of Turkey in Europe. Turk blood in most of
the royal families of the East.
Religion. — Preeminently, though not exclusively, Mahometan ; generally of
the Sunnite doctrine. Shamanism amongst the Yakuts, Buddhism amongst the
Turks of the Chinese Empire, Christianity amongst those of Siberia.
Language. — Spoken with remarkable uniformity over the whole area; so
much so that the Yakut of the Icy Sea is said to be intelligible to the
Turks of Central Asia, and even of Constantinople.
Physical Conformation. — In some cases almost identical with that of the
Mongolians, in others almost European. Generally speaking, it partakes of the
character of the non-Turkish natives of the numerous countries with which the
Turk area is in contact.
In Turkey, .SSgypt, and the Persian frontier much intermixture.
As the Mongol character departs, the face becomes oval rather than square,
the features prominent rather than flat, the beard develops itself, and the
complexion becomes brunette rather than swarthy.
Conterminous — 1. Beginning at the most north-eastern point, and going round
from north to south — with the Tungus. 2. Mongols 3. Tibetans. 4. Ira-
nians (i. e. Persian tribes, and tribes allied to them). 5. Armenians. 6. Dios-
curians (i. e. the tribes of Caucasus). 7. Arabians. 8. Greeks. 9. Slavonians.
10. Finns. 11. Yeniseyans. 12. Samoieds.
Chief particular Divisions — taking the round as before —
1 . Vighurs. — On the Mongol frontier. Belonging to China. The Uighurs
were the first Turks that used an alphabet. Little known.
2. Turks of the Sandy Desert. — Conterminous with Mongolia and Tibet.
Do. Do.
3. Turks ofKhoten, Kashgar, and Yarkend. Do. Do.
4. Kirghis. — Independent Tartary. The Kirghis form a portion of the
population of the highest table-land in Asia — perhaps in the world — Pamer,
and the source of the Oxus.
5. Uzbeks. — The Turks of Bokhara.
6. Turkomans. — The Persian frontier of Independent Tartary from Balk to
the Caspian. Pastoral robbers.
76 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIDJS.
7. Ottoman or Osmanli. — The Turks of the Turkish Empire.
8. Nogays. — The Turks of the parts between the Black Sea and the Caspian,
north of Caucasus.
9. Turks of the Russian Empire. — Bashkirs (?), Teptyars, Baraba, &c.
With all these, although the language is Turk, there is good reason to believe
that the original substratum is Finn. With the Bashkirs this is generally con-
sidered to be the case.
10. The isolated Yakuts of the Lena.
Such is the great Turk area, the extent of which is, in
itself, an ethnological study; equally remarkable for its
positive and its negative peculiarities.
Laying aside the Yakuts as isolated, and the Turks of
Asia-Minor and Thrace as recent settlers, we have in
Turkish Asia an enormous steppe, mountains of all but
first-rate magnitude, the head-waters of many rivers, but
the embouchures of none, a salt-water lake but no commu-
nication with the ocean. Yet, given the central point of a
large continent, this is what we expect a priori. If any
influence that shall affect the fate of the world at large is
to be developed in such an area, it must, surely, be an
influence strongly and typically contrasted with the influ-
ence which such relations of land and water as the Medi-
terranean supplies to Greece, and in a less degree to every
country that abuts on it, are calculated to develop. The
dispersion of the Turkish race is essentially the dispersion
of a race over a continent. I do not know who first used
the illustration, but the manner in which Othman"s all-
conquering host was arrested by the Hellespont, has been
well compared to the check that a running brook puts
to the Scotch witches and wizards. What Leander
and Lord Byron swam across, the conqueror of Asia was
checked by.
The relations to the pole on one side and the equator
on the other, are remarkably parallel between the two
THE TURKS. 77
great conquering nations of the world — the Turks of Asia,
and the Goths of Europe. The latitudes 47 — 55 enclose,
the nations who, on the one side, displaced the abori-
gines of Asia Minor and Thrace, on the other, those of
Keltic Britain and of North America.
One condition necessary for a race that thus spread
themselves abroad, occurs in a remarkable degree with the
Turk. In the Yakut country we find the most intense
cold known in Asia ; in Pamer, the greatest elevation
above the sea-level ; in the south of ^Egypt, an intertro-
pical degree of heat. Yet, in all these countries we find
the Turk. In their physiognomy the Turks have in many
instances departed from the Mongol type ; and, hence,
the agreement between the two cognate families is less
manifest in their physical conformation than in their
languages. The nature and extent of this deviation is
well worth more investigation than it has met with ; and
next in importance to the fact itself, is the reason that may
be assigned for it.
Whether it may be from the Osmanli Turk of Con-
stantinople, with his un- Mongolian length of beard, his
regularly formed eye, and his other European points of
physiognomy, being the standard by which we measure
the other divisions of the family, or whether we have
unnecessarily restricted the term Mongol to the inhabitants
of Mongolia, it is certain that a great majority of travel-
lers are in the habit of describing a Mongol cast of
countenance when found in a Turk, as an exceptional
phenomenon ; just as if the Turk had one character and
the Mongol another, and as if a deviation either way was
an anomaly.
Now, the notice of all differences, however small, be-
tween the tribes of the Turk, and those of any other divi-
78 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
sion of the human kind, is so far from being exceptionable,
that it is particularly desirable.
Neither is the assumption of the Turk in his most
European form as a standard of comparison, rather than
that of the more Mongoliform Turks, objectionable. One
writer is as fully at liberty to treat all deviations from the
type of a Constantinopolitan Osmanli as anomalous, as
another is to apply a Mongol standard. Provided that
facts are accumulated, ethnology is the gainer.
It is only when the idea of the Turk type being one
thing, and the Mongol another, has so far taken possession
of a writer, as to make him overvalue the import of such
differences, that evil arises. Then a fact which should
even be expected a priori, becomes an anomaly ; and the
assumption of some extraordinary cause — generally the mix-
ture of race — is assumed. I say assumed, because in many
cases it is taken for granted, simply and solely because
it will explain the phenomena. Where this is not the
fact, where there are other grounds for believing that inter-
mixture has occurred, it is not only legitimate, but it is
necessary to admit it.
RULE. — Intermixture of race solely for the sake of ac-
counting for varieties of physical conformation is not to be
assumed, except in extreme cases.
Practically I consider that the Mongoliform physio-
gnomy is the rule with the Turk rather than the exception,
and that the Turk of Turkey exhibits the exceptional
character of his family. Both these facts are what we
should expect. Ethnological affinity, as proved by lan-
guage, exists in a very close degree between the Turks and
the Mongolians. Common conditions of climate exist also.
Either implies similarity of physical conformation. On
the other hand, where the Turk is least like the Mongol,
THE TURKS. 79
we know that intermixture has taken place ; intermixture
like that of the Circassian and Georgian blood in Europe,
and that of the Persian in Asia. Hence, if I allowed
myself to assume at all, I would assume an intermixture
to account for the difference between the Turk and Mongol
— not to account for the similarity.
Extract from Burnes's description of the Uzbek chief of
Kunduz. — " Moorad Beg is about fifty years of age,
his stature is tall, and his features are those of a genuine
Uzbek ; his eyes are small to a deformity ; his forehead
broad and frowning ; and his whole cast of countenance
most repulsive."" — Vol. ii. 358.
Extract from Khamikoff respecting the Uzbeks of Bokhara.
— " The exterior of the Uzbeks reminds us strongly of
the Moghul race, except that they have larger eyes and
are somewhat handsomer ; they are generally middle-sized
men ; the colour of their beards varies between a shade of
red and dark auburn, whilst few are found with black
hair." — Translation by the Baron de Bode.
Statements of this kind might be multiplied, particularly
in respect to the Uzbeks.
Descent of certain portions of the Turk Branch — Epoch
of its present extension. — The Turk Branch of the Tura-
nian stock introduces a series of ethnological questions,
which have, as yet, presented themselves only in a rudi-
mentary form. Few of the tribes hitherto described, were
known to the ancients sufficiently to make the question of
descent between the present nations and their real or sup-
posed representatives in classical antiquity, a matter of much
— although, of course, it is always of some — importance.
With the Turk nations it is otherwise : a large, perhaps a
very large, portion of the ancient Scythia must have been
Turk ; and, if so, it is amongst the Turks that we must
80 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
look for some of the widest and fiercest of ancient con-
querors.
At what time did the present enormous diffusion of
Turk tribes take place ? The answer to this question is the
answer to many others. By knowing this we know also
the probable ethnological position of such famous peoples
as the Kimmerii, Sakse, Massagetse, Alans, Avars, Huns,
Nephthalites, Bulgarians, and others — peoples whereof the
records are written in the annals not only of Rome and
Greece, but of Lydia, Media, and Assyria.
At what epoch did the diffusion of the Turk tribes take
place 2 If at a period anterior to history, their frontier
must have been the same in the time of Herodotus as at
present ; and, consequently, their geographical relations to
Persia and Europe, the same.
At what time, then, did it take place ? For two areas
the question is answered at once; for European Turkey
and for Asia Minor it has certainly taken place within the
historical period. With these two exceptions, I believe,
that, at the beginning of the historical period, the great
Turk area was much the same as at present ; less, perhaps,
by a degree or two, on this frontier or that ; but still
essentially the same in Jcind. By in kind, I mean ethno-
graphically, i. e. that (subject to the aforesaid exceptions)
the Turk tribes were conterminous with the same non-Turk
tribes as at present. Let us apply this view in detail.
Siberian Frontier. — From Kasan to the Lake Baikal,
the frontier is Finnish, Yenesean, and Samoeid. I admit
that the southern limits of all these families are likely
to have been curtailed ; — indeed I would argue that such
has been the case. This, however, is a mere difference of
degree.
There is no proof of any nations other than those
THE TURKS. 81
belonging to the Finn, Yeniseyan, and Samoeid divisions
having ever been in contact with the Northern Turks, and
vice versa.
Mongolian and Tibetan frontier. — There is not the
shadow of historical evidence, nor even a tradition, which
should induce us to believe that these two nations were
ever less conterminous with each other, and with the
Turk, than they are at present.
Persian frontier. — Reasons for supposing that tribes
other than those of the Turk division ravaged Persia as
early as the time of Cyrus, would lie in the incompatibility
of any accounts of such invaders with the known facts
concerning the Turks. I am not aware, however, that
any such incompatibility exists. The names are different.
No Sakse or Massegetse are known, under such denomina-
tions, as Turk tribes. Yet this scarcely constitutes even
the shadow of an objection ; since native names, and names
by which tribes are known to nations other than their
own, oftener differ than coincide.
The Caucasian frontier — the frontier of the Don. — Here
the reasoning becomes more difficult. An invasion of
Persia along the frontier from Bokhara to the Caspian, is
an invasion which no existing nation could claim, except
the Turk ; since it is a rule in ethnological reasoning to
consider every nation as indigenous to the country where it
is first found, unless reason le shown to the contrary.
For the parts, however, between the Volga, Caucasus,
and the Don (or even Dnieper), there is no such present
unity of nation as between the Caspian and Bokhara ; and
an invasion that burst upon Persia from the north-west, or
upon Greece from the north-east, might well be claimed for
no less than four great ethnological sections. — 1. The Turk.
2. The Slavonic. 3. The Circassian. 4. The Hungarian.
82 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
I will apply general principles to get at the different
probabilities here involved.
1. The nation that invades loth Persia and Europe is
most probably the nation most intermediate to the two.
This is in favour of the Cimmerians having come from the
present country of the Nogays, rather than from the
Ukraine, or from the Bashkir country, i<?., in favour of
their being Turk rather than Slavonic or Hungarian.
2. A nation that, within the historical period, has
always encroached upon others is more likely to be the
invader, in a given instance, than a nation which has not
been known so to be in the habit of extending itself.
This is in favour of the Cimmerians having been Turks
from the Nogay country, rather than Circassians.
This is the geographical view. Another method is to
take the names of certain invading tribes mentioned in
history, and to consider how far they belong to the
Turk division, or are to be distributed elsewhere. Here
the ethnological method is to begin with the most
recent : —
Uzi, PetcJienekhi, and Komani of the later Byzantine
Empire, Turk. — -From A. D. 1050 to about 1500. — It is
believed that the term Cumani is only a fresh name for the
Uzi (Oy£o/), who disappear from history as the Cumani
appear. There is the special evidence of the Empress
Anna Comnena that the Cumani and the Petchenekhi
spoke the same language. Their first attack upon the
Slavonian tribes was A.D. 1058; and the name by which
the Slavonians speak of them is Polowci=inhabitants of
the plains. This the Germans, in speaking of them, trans-
late; so that they call the Cumani Falawa, Valui, Valwen.
Hence comes the present name of one of the Cumanian
European localities — Volhynia.
THE TURKS. 83
There are three districts in Europe where the descent is,
in part, Cumanian but the language not Cumanian.
1. Volhynia.
2. Between the Dnieper and Volga. — Here Cumani were
found by Carpin and Kubriquis.
3. Hungary. — The proof of the Cumanian habitation of
part of Hungary, is a matter of some literary interest.
The last Cumanian* who knew even a few words of his
original tongue, was an old man of Karczag, named Varro,
who died A.D. 1 770 ; and an incomplete Pater-noster, pre-
served by Dugorics and Thunmann, is all that remains of
this dialect. Of the Cumanian of Asia, we have a remark-
able vocabulary, from a MS. belonging to the library of
the celebrated Petrarch. This is the Turk of the parts
between the Caspian and Aral.
Tlw Avars. — A.D. 465 to about 900. In A.D. 465, the
Saraguri,f the Onoguri, and the Urugi sent an embassy
to Constantinople, to complain of the inroads of the Avars.
We may guess beforehand the locality, and we may guess
beforehand the cause. In the countries between the
Maeotis and the Caspian, the Sabiri are pressed upon by
the Abares, the Abares being pressed upon by some
tribe from behind, and the primum mobile being probably
in the centre of Asia. Such is the general history of these
movements. We then learn from Gibbon, \ how, in A.D.
558, these Avars themselves appear as suppliants to the
Alani, requesting their good services at the Byzantine
Court ; and we learn, also, how they afterwards appeared
before Justinian, more as sturdy beggars than as sup-
pliants, requesting aid against the Turks ; and how that
monarch played fast and loose between the runaway slaves
* Klaproth, Memoires relatifs a 1'Asie, iii
t Zeusa, v. Avari. J Decline and Fall, vol. v.
o 2
84 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
and the indignant masters. He turned them upon his
enemies in the west ; the Slavonians, and the Germans.
And these they overran until checked on the Elbe, by a
bloody victory gained over them by Sigisbert. The next
victory, however, was the Avars1, and peace followed. But
the Avars remained like locusts in the land. This they
had exhausted, or helped to exhaust ; when either the
intrigues of the King of the Lombards, or the pressure of
famine, induced them to agree with Sigisbert upon the
terms of their departure. These were a supply of meal
and meat for their expedition. To the King of the
Lombards, Alboin, whom they then turned eastwards to
join, they proffered their assistance against the Gepidae, on
condition of Pannonia, if evacuated, being ceded to them.
The destruction of the Gepidse of Pannonia was followed
by the bright period of Avar history, the reign of Baian.
The pride of this barbarian inflamed the anger of the
Emperor Maurice, who broke his power by the arms of
his general Priscus, — broke, but not annihilated. On the
29th of June, A.D. 626, thirty thousand of the vanguard
of the Avars insulted the patricians of Constantinople
under their own walls, strong in their own barbarian valour,
and strong in an even-handed alliance, against the common
enemy, with the great king, Chosroes, then at war with
Heraclius. " You see," was his answer to the standing
patricians, " the proofs of my perfect union with the great
king ; and his lieutenant is ready to send into my camp
a select band of three thousand warriors. Presume no
longer to tempt your master with a partial and inadequate
ransom ; your wealth and your city are the only presents
worthy of my acceptance. For yourself, I shall permit
you to depart, each with an under-garment, and a shirt,
and, at my entreaty, my friend Sarbar will not refuse a
THE TURKS. 85
passage through his lines. Your absent prince, even now
a captive or a fugitive, has left Constantinople to its fate ;
nor can you escape \tlie arms of the Avars and Persians,
unless you could soar into air like birds, or unless like
fishes you could dive into the waves."
Fortunately for the empire of the east the crown was
worn by Heraclius ; and in the eleventh hour, the Avars
and the Persians were repulsed. The next century was a
century of internal quarrels, whilst their enemies— and this
means every tribe of European origin — became stronger.
The baptism of one of the Avar kings, took place in
A.D. 795 ; the conquest of Hungary by Charlemagne
the year following. What the great German left half
done, the Slavonians of the parts around consummated, —
and when the first Russian historian composed the annals
of his nation, the expression, they have been cut off, son and
father, like the Avars, was the bye-word most expressive of
utter annihilation.
Now the whole history of the Avars, as well as their
locality and alliances, is Turk ; and their ruler is regularly
spoken of as the Khaghan, or Khan, of the Avars.
The Turk affinity of the Avars has never been doubted.
The Alani. — The locality, the history, and all a priori
evidence make the Alans Turkish ; — two facts only, that I
know of, militate, even in the smallest way, against their
being so.
1. The well-known alliance between the Alani and
Vandals ; a fact of value only in the eyes of him who
believes that none but ethnologically related tribes enter
into offensive and defensive alliances.
2. The accredited identity between the Alani and the
Oseti of Caucasus ; a tribe undoubtedly not Turkish. Let
us analyze the grounds of this belief. The Oseti name
86 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
themselves /row, but are named by the Turks and
Georgians, Osi ; by the Russians, Yassy ; by the Ara-
bians, As. This is the first fact.
The second is a pair of quotations from Carpin and
Barbaro : —
a. Alains ou Asses. — Carpin.
b. La Alania & derivata da populo delli Alani, liquali
nella lor lingua si chiamano As. — Barbara.
Now the most that this proves is, that the same name
which the Alans gave to themselves, the Georgians, &c.
gave to the Iron ; a fact which is by no means conclusive.
On the other hand, it shows that the two indigenous
names, As and Iron, were different. This subject will be
noticed again when speaking of the Oseti. At present it
is not unnecessary to add, that the name Uz (Ov£) has
already been mentioned as a name of a tribe in this loca-
lity ; and that, possibly, it may = As. If so, the Alans,
Uzi, and Cumani, are the same people at different times.
Nothing is more likely than this, especially as we know
that Alani was not a native name, and have good reasons
for thinking the same of the term Cumani.
Again, the Oseti, a limited mountain tribe of the
Middle Caucasus, with all its supposed affinities in Media
and Persia — since the same writers who identify the
Alans with Oseti, identify the Oseti with the Medes —
could never have passed as Scythians. Now the Alans
did so pass, as is shown by a remarkable passage in Lu-
cian : — " so said Makentses, being the same in dress and
the same in language as the Alani (opoffxtuog xcu ojAoyXar-
rog rotg ' AXotvoTg uv) ; since these things are common to
the Alani and the Skythse ; except that the Alani are not
altogether so long-haired as the Skythse. In this respect,
however, Makentses was like a Skythian, inasmuch as he
THE TURKS. 87
had shaved himself to the extent to which an Alan head of
hair falls short of a Skythian one." *
The Khazars and Huns. — The evidence derived from
the use of the term Khaghan, or Khan, so diagnostic of the
Turk and Mongol families, is wanting in respect to the
Huns of Attila. Neither he nor his brother is anywhere
so designated.
On the other hand, it is erroneous to suppose that the
Huns of Attila are the only Huns of history. The Byzan-
tine historians — even writers who say little or nothing
about Attila, — deal with the name Hun, as a well-known
and recognised geographical or ethnological term, applied
to the tribes between the Don and Volga. Hence they
speak of sections of the Hun nation.
The most satisfactory of these is the identification of
the Akatir with the Huns — ' Axurtgotg Qvvvois — Priscus.
Now the Akatir are, undoubtedly, the Khazars, since
the intermediate form ' A#a£/£o; occurs ; the Greek form
of Khazars being Xa£«£>0;.
Hence, the reasoning runs thus — that the Huns of
Attila were what the Huns of Priscus were ; — that one
of these Hun tribes was the Khazar tribe. What were
the Khazars ? The Khazars were Turks from the East.
Tovpzoi owo rqt; i&>ct$, ovg Xa^a^aj bvopu'tpvfft, Theo-
phanes, the first author who names them, denoting them
thus. In respect to their history, the Khazars appear as
the Avars wane in importance. It was by an alliance with
the Khazars, indeed, that Heraclius, as stated above,
freed himself from those formidable enemies. From A.D.
626, until the tenth century, the Khazars and Petchinakhi
(YlarfyyccziTui) are the most formidable enemies to the
Goths of the Crimea, and to the Russians of the Dnieper.
* Lucian, Toxaris 31. From Zeuss, v. Alani.
88 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLID./E.
If these affiliations be correct, the Turks are one of the
oldest material influences that have acted on the history of
the world, as well as one of the greatest ; the Turk division
being the probable ethnological position for the Massagetse,
Sakae, Cimmerii, Alani, Huns, and Avars, and other less
important conquerors. To distribute the still older tribes
of Scythia is a matter of minute ethnology, for which the
present work will not allow room. The usual notices,
however, of the Turk nations, taken from the Chinese
records, should not be omitted.
The Hiong-nou. — Under this name a conquering nation,
conterminous with China, and against which the Chinese
wall had been built, appears in the annals of the dynasty of
Han ; between B.C. 163 and A.D. 196. These are the
Hiong-nou of De Guignes and Gibbon.
The Hiun-yu. — Under the dynasty of Shang, which is
supposed to have reigned from B.C. 1766 to B.C. 1234,
Klaproth finds notice of a people thus denominated. He
considers that they were ancestors of the Hiong-nou.
I give these two names for what they have been be-
lieved by better judges than myself to denote — not for
what I believe myself. The only fact which to me seems
incontestible is that, at an early period in the Chinese
history, a non-Chinese nation was known under the name
of Hiong-nu.
If these be the Huns of the Classics, the evidence as to
their being Turk rather than Hungarian, is nearly conclu-
sive ; the Turk division being the only one which is, at
one and the same time, conterminous with Europe, and
almost conterminous with China.
Moreover, if the Hiong-nou be the Huns, we may infer
that the name Hun was a native name, in the way that
Deutsche is the native name of what- we call the Ger-
THE TURKS. 89
mans ; since it is not likely that the Greeks and Chinese
would use the same appellation, unless it were also the
indigenous appellation of the people to which it was
applied.*
The Thukiu. — These are the proper Turks of the Altai
mountains under a Chinese name. They are mentioned as
being powerful about A.D. 545.
1. If the word Thu-kiu be the Chinese form of Turk,
we learn that the name was native.
2. If the Hiong-nu and Thu-kiu be the same people,
we fix the former as Turk rather than aught else.
Now, both these suppositions are highly probable. Se-
veral Thu-kiu glosses have been collected by Klaproth
from Chinese writings, and they are all Turk, more espe-
cially the Turk of Central Asia ; whilst, on the other
hand, the Chinese writer, Ma-tuan-in, derives the Thivi-
kiu from the Hiong-nou.
Such of my readers as know that Niebuhr considered
* 1. The determination of the language to which the name of any nation
mentioned in history belongs is of primary importance. Perhaps there is not one
fourth of the tribes described bj writers, either ancient or modern, whereof the
name is native ; e.g., the terms Welsh and German are unknown in Wales and
Germany; whilst an Englishman is & Saxon in the Principality and in Ireland.
For ascertaining whether a name be native or not the two following rules are
useful.
Rule 1. When two different nations speak of a third by the same name the
prima facie evidence is in favour of that name being the native one.
Pule 2. When one nation speaks of two others under the same name, the
prima facie evidence is against that name being the native one.
Thus, according to Rule 1 , if a Chinese and a Greek each call a tribe which
invades their country, Hun, it is nearly certain that the invading tribe called
itself Hun also. Of course, in cases, where the two nations using the common
term might have borrowed it one of another, or from a third language, the proba-
bilities are modified. Still the general rule holds good.
The second rule may be illustrated by the term Welsh. It is given by the
nations of the Gothic stock to the Cambrians of Wales, the Italians of Italy, and
the Wallachians of Wallachia. We know that with none of these it is native. I
consider, however, that, given the geographical position of Germany^ Wales,
Italy, and Wallachia, the same might have been inferred.
90 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
the Huns to be Mongols, and that Humboldt insists upon
their Finnic origin will excuse the length to which these
remarks on their ethnographical position have been ex-
tended.
Additions to the Turk area made within the historical
period. — This means Asia Minor (Anatolia), and Turkey
in Europe ; additions of a true ethnological character ;
additions whereby the Turk division came in contact with
other divisions of our species wholly new, e.g., the Greek,
the Arabian, and the Armenian. The points to be con-
sidered are — the direction, the date, the rate, the com-
pleteness or incompleteness of the ethnological change
effected.
a. The direction. — From south-east toward north-west ;
i.e., from Persia; and the parts south of the Caspian and
Caucasus, rather than from the parts between the northern
Caspian and the Black Sea; so as to be a prolongation
of the Turcoman and Uzbek frontier, rather than of the
Nogay.
t>. Date. — From A.D. 1038 to A.D. 1063, the reign of
Togrul Beg, grandson of Seljuk ; a Turk of either Turco-
mania or Bokhara — The Arabian kingdom of Persia is now
disorganized ; chiefly by Turks, who have raised themselves
from the governors of provinces to the founders of empires,
e.g., Mahmud of Ghizni. The power of the Kalif of
Bagdad, at best but nominal, is reduced still more by
Togrul. The Seljukian Turks (or rather Turkomans),
are the sultans of Persia, now become a consolidated
empire.
TogruFs successor conquers Armenia and Georgia.
Here, however, the ethnological effects of the Turk were,
and have continued to be, limited.
About the same time the Arabian princes of Aleppo
THE TURKS. 91
and Damascus are expelled. Here, also, the ethnological
effects were, and have been, limited.
A.D. 1074. Now began the conquest of Asia Minor
by Seljukian Turks, a conquest by which one ethnological
division of the human species has been replaced by another.
It ended in the establishment of the kingdom of Roum ;
won from the degenerate Romans of Constantinople.
In its due turn the kingdom of Roum breaks up ;
partly from internal disorganization, partly from attacks
from without, the chief of these being those under the
leaders of the house of Zingiz. There was also a partial
re-conquest by the Romans. Hence in A.D. 1229 there
is room for the ambition of Othman. Othman and his
successors reconsolidate the kingdom of Roum, Anatolia,
or Asia Minor, now Turk.
In A.D. 1360 the Turks of Asia begin to become the
Turks of Europe under Amurath I. ; during whose reign
Anatolia was a great centre of conquest, of which the
Asiatic extension was limited by the parallel centre of
conquest — Bokhara under Tamerlane. On the side of
Europe, however, all was free. A.D. 1453, is the date of
the taking of Constantinople. Since then the Turk area in
Europe has been formed.
Mate, completeness or incompleteness of the ethnological
change effected. — These two questions are connected. We
can scarcely tell how long it took to transform the non-
Turk countries like Asia Minor and Thrace, into the Turk
countries of Roum, unless we also know how far the
transformation is real or apparent. Now upon this point
we want information. No man can say how many ethnolo-
gical elements other than Turk may be present amongst the
Anatolian and Rumelian speakers of the Ottoman language.
Still the conquest of the two areas is spread over a period
92 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
of not less than three hundred and seventy nine years ;
beginning with the invasion of Asia Minor, by TogruFs
successor, and ending with the taking of Constantinople
by Mahomet II.
Turk elements of intermixture in families other than the
Turk. — These must be noticed briefly. The facts connected
with the question falling under the three following heads : —
1. Turk blood in the ruling families of the East. — The
Ghiznivide and Seljukian dynasties of Persia, the Uzbek
rulers of Bokhara, the Pasha of JEgypt, the Great Mogul,
&c.
2. Turks living in separate communities in countries
beyond the Turk area. — Turks of Persia, Armenia, Bok-
hara, &c.
3. Localities 'where the Turkish language has been
spoken and become extinct. — Parts of Hungary, for which
see the notice of the Cumani. Other localities, of which
by far the most important is Bulgaria. At present
the Bulgarian language is Slavonic ; and, such being the
case, the primd facie evidence is in favour of the people
being Slavonic also. Reasons, however, for the contrary
will be found in the notice of the Slavonians.
By adding, to all this, the statement that at least one
nation, the Bashkirs, although speaking Turk, are supposed
to be Finnic, and, by recollecting at the same time, the
great extent of Turk conquests, like some of those of
Tamerlane, less permanent than those enumerated, as well
as the effects of the trade in female slaves (pre-eminently
supported by Turk nations), we may arrive at a valuation
of the importance of the Turk family as a physical in-
fluence in the way of intermixture.
The influences of the Turk family have been material
rather than moral. — No portion of the Turk division
THE TURKS. 93
has ever passed for one of the pre-eminently intellectual
sections of mankind. The steady monotheism, however,
of the Koran, they have taken up so generally, that Turk
and Mahometan are almost as synonymous as Arab and
Mahometan. Their literature is founded on that of
Persia. No great idea has ever originated from them,
and none but those of the simpler and more straightforward
kind been adopted. At the same time the Syriac alphabet
of the Nestorian Christians was introduced amongst the
Uighur Turks, earlier than in any other quarter equally
remote ; and fragmentary forms of ancient Turk poetry,
anterior to the influences of the Persian, and Arabic, are
to be found in Von Hammer.
The verbal truthfulness of the Turk has been praised
by most who have had the means of observation. Lying
is the vice of the weak ; and no nations have so little been
slaves, and so much been masters, as the Turk.
The Yakuts. — The isolated Turks, or Yakuts, still
stand over for notice. Their centre is the river Lena,
whereon they extend at least as far southward as the
Aldan. Eastward they are found on the* Kolyma, and
westward as far as the Yenisey. Here the Yakut tribe
is that of the Dolganen, an outlying portion of the section
first noticed by Von Middendorf.-f-
That the Yakut are Turk, is placed beyond reasonable
doubt ; although the only test has been that of language.
Respecting this the two most extreme statements which
I have met with are the following : —
1st. That it is intelligible at Constantinople.
2nd. That not less than one-third of the words (and
* Wrangell, from Prichard, vol. iv.
+ Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
1846.
94 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
some of them the names of very simple ideas) are other
than Turk.*
The truth will probably be known when the recent
researches of Von Middendorf are published. In either
case, however, the language is Turk.
With the evidence of language, the evidence of physical
confirmation is said to disagree. The Yakuts are essen-
Fig 5.
tially Mongolian in physiognomy. The value of the fact
must be determined by what has been already said upon
the subject.
The locality of the Yakuts is remarkable. It is that of
* Ermann, from Prichard, vol. iv.
THE UGRIANS. 95
a weak section of the human race, pressed into an inhos-
pitable climate by a stronger one. Yet the Turks have
ever been the people to displace others, rather than to be
displaced themselves. On the other hand, the traditions
of the country speak expressly to a southern origin.
In respect to the social development of the Yakut, Von
Middendorf s distinctions are the most suggestive as well
as the most critical. The southernmost Yakuts have the
horse, the middlemost the rein-deer, the northernmost the
dog. The manners of the southern ones are best known ;
and these are essentially pastoral. Besides the breeding of
herds of horses, the Russian fur-trade has developed an
industrial form of the hunter-state ; so that, amongst the
Yakuts, property accumulates, and we have a higher
civilization than will be found elsewhere in the same lati-
tude ; Finland and Norway alone being excepted.
Other circumstances make the Yakuts an ethnological
study. They are not only Turks who are not Mahometan,
but their Christianity is still imperfect : hence they repre-
sent the Shamanism of the Turk before he became Mos-
lemized. The details of the Yakut creed, sufficiently
numerous to form, along with those of the still pagan
Ugrians and Samb'eids, an elaborate picture of an old
religion, which, in its essential characters, was common to
all the families of High Asia and Siberia, may be best
found in Ermann.* The simple fact of its representing
an early religion, is all that can here be noticed.
THE UGRIAN BRANCH OF THE TURANIAN STOCK.
1. Present distribution — continuous. — West and East — From Norway to the
Yenisey. North and South (South-East) — From the North Cape to the Russian
governments of Simbirsk, Saratof, and Astrakhan. The Volga south of its
confluence with the Kama.
* Reise um der Erde.
96 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
2. Isolated portion. — Hungary.
3. Ancient distribution, — Further southwards along the whole frontier, i.e.,
in Scandinavia, Russia, and Siberia. The Eastward extension probably less
than at present.
4. As portions of a mired population beyond their proper area — In Sweden
and Norway.
Religion. — Lutheranism, Romanism, Greek Church, Imperfect Christianity,
Shamanism.
Physical conformation. — Chief departure from the Mongol type, the frequency
of blue eyes, and light (red) hair.
Conterminous with. — 1. Goths of the Scandinavian group in Norway and
Sweden ; 2. Slavonians in Russia ; 3. Lithuanians in Esthonia ; 4, 5, 6. Turks,
Yeniseyans, and Tungus in Siberia. In Europe, in contact with the North Sea.
East of Archangel, separated therefrom by the Samb'eids.
Divisions. — 1. Trans-Uralian Ugrians. — Between the Ural Mountains and
the Yenesey. Voguls and Ostiaks.
2. Permian Finns. — Permians, Siranians, Votiaks.
3. Finns of the Volga. — Morduins, Tsheremiss, Tshitvatsh.
4. Finlanders of Finland,
5. Esthonians of Esthonia.
6. Laplanders of Sweden and Finmark.
7. Majiars of Hungary.
1.
THE VOGULS.
Locality. — The northern part of the Uralian range, and the country to the
east as far as the Irtish, and Tobol, and as far north as the Soswa a feeder of
the Obi. Tradition says that they extended as far westward as the Dwina.
Probability that they extended further south.
Name. — The Voguls call themselves and the Ostiaks Mansi. They are
called by the Siranians Yograyess, and Vagol.
Conterminous with. — The Siranians on the west, the Obi Ostiaks on the east,
the Bashkirs on the south.
Dialects. — The northern Vognl of the Sosva, the southern of the Tura, a
tributary of the Tobol.
Population. — According to Schubert, one hundred thousand.
Religion. — Shamanism, or imperfect Christianity.
Physical appearance. — Stature small, complexion light, face broad and round,
beard scanty, hair long, black, or brown, sometimes red. The Kalmuk (i.e.
Mongolian) character of the Vogul physiognomy is noticed by Pallas.
The Voguls are very nearly on the low level of a tribe
of fishers and hunters. Except towards the south, where
they are partially Russianized, and where they have also
partially adopted the manners of the Bashkirs, there is but
OSTIAKS — PERMIANS. 97
little pasturage, and no agriculture. The horse is not in
use amongst them — the rein-deer being the nearest ap-
proach to a domestic animal. Their tribute is paid in
its skins.
THE OSTIAKS.
Locality. — Valley of the Obi — Eastwards to the Yenisei.
Name. — Russian, probably originally Bashkir. The native name — Kondycho,
Tyakum, or Asyakh. Called by the Samoeids, Thahe ; by the Voguls, Mansi.
Conterminous with. — The Voguls on the west, the Samoeids on the north,
the Barabinsky and other Turkish tribes, and (probably) with the Yeniseians
on the south.
Number. — About one hundred thousand.
Dialects. — Numerous. — The Southern mixed with the Vogul, the Northern
with the Samoeid.
Physical appearance. — Stature short, bones small, muscular strength little,
face flat, hair red, or reddish.
Religion. — Shamanism in the north, imperfect Christianity in the south.
The Ostiaks are almost wholly a nation of fishers.
That their limits originally extended farther south than
at present is highly probable. A tradition concerning
their migration from the west will be noticed in the section
upon the Samoeids.
Notwithstanding the close affinity between the Ostiaks
and the Voguls, the two nations were, at the time of the
Russian conquest, in continual warfare against each other :
the Ostiaks being under the government of petty here-
ditary chiefs.
In the pagan parts of the Ostiak country polygamy is
the custom.
2.
THE PERMIANS.
Locality. — The government of Perm ; of which they form less than a quarter,
the rest being Russians or Russianized Fins.
Name. — Russian, probably taken from the Scandinavian term Bjarma. The
native term is Komi-uter, or Komi-murt.
Population. — According to Schubert, about thirty-five thousand.
THE SIRANIANS.
Locality. — North of the Permians, about the headwaters of the R. Kama,
and R. Vytchegda, a feeder of the Dwina.
H
98 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
Native name. — Same as the Permian.
Population. — According to Schubert, thirty thousand.
Dialects. — Four. The Siranian, itself, however, is rather a dialect of the
Permian than a substantive language.
THE VOTIAKS.
Locality. — The R. Viatka.
Called by the Russians, Viatka.
„ „ Turk tribes, Ari.
„ „ themselves, Udy or Udmart.
„ ,, the Tcheremiss, Oda.
Religion. — Imperfect Christianity. Probably some remains of Shamanism.
Of all the Finnic tribes the Votiaks are the most like
the Finlanders of Finland; indeed Miiller states that
there is a tradition among them to the effect that their
original country was Finland, and that they are immi-
grants from thence.
On the other hand, the extent to which they differ from
their south-western neighbours, the Tcheremiss, is said to
be remarkable.
In respect to the physical conformation of the Votiaks,
the evidence of Ermann is favorable, that of Pallas less
so. The latter describes them as slight and undersized :
the former as strongly built. In no Finnic tribe — per-
haps in no other tribe in the world, — is fiery red hair so
common as amongst the Votiaks. ,
They are an agricultural population, not fishers and
hunters.
They are also, most probably, an unmixed population ;
since none of their neighbours live so exclusively to them-
selves, (i.e. not in mixed villages, half Russian, or half
Bashkir,) as the Votiaks.
The government under petty chiefs, or the heads of
tribes, still continues ; and it is a privilege of the Votiaks
to elect their own village judges or arbiters.
TCHEREMISS, MORDUINS, TCHUVATCH. 99
Their population seems on the increase. At the end
of the last century it was forty thousand : in 1 837 it was
one hundred thousand.
3.
THE TCHEREMISS.
Locality. — The left bank of the Middle Volga ; fewer on the right. Govern-
ments of Kasan, Simbirsk, and Saratov. Recently, settlements in the
Government of Astrakan. Conterminous with the Votiaks.
Name. — Russian. Native name, Mari— men.
Numbers. — According to Schubert, two hundred thousand.
Religion. — Imperfect Christianity. Greek Church.
Physical appearance. — Stature, middle ; hair, light ; beard, scanty ; face, flat.
Habitations. — Small villages, smaller than those of the Votiaks, and Tchu-
vatch. Habits, agricultural ; lately nomadic.
THE MORDUINS.
Locality. — The most South- Western of the Finnic tribes, on the right-bank
of the Volga, between the R. Sura and R. Oka.
Name. — Native.
Divisions. — The Morduins of the Oka, are called Ersad ; the Morduins of
the Sura, Mokshad. A third division, called Karatai, inhabits the neighbour-
hood of Kasan.
Number. — In 1837, ninety-two thousand.
Dialects. — Two or more — the Ersad and the Mokshad.
Religion. — Imperfect Christianity ; Greek Church ; Shamanism.
Physical appearance. — Hair, brown and straight; beard, thin. More Slavonic
than any other Finnic tribe. The Ersad oftener red-haired than the Mokshad.
THE TCHUVATCH.
Locality. — Right bank of the Volga, opposite the Tcheremiss, in the neigh-
bourhood of Kasan, in the Government of Simbirsk and Saratov. Recent settle-
ments in the Government of Astrakan.
Native Name. — Vereyal, and Khirdiyal, and Vyress :
Called by the Russians, Vyress.
„ „ Tcheremiss, Kurk- Mari == hill men.
„ „ Morduins, Wjedke.
Numbers. — According to Schubert, three hundred and seventy thousand.
Religion. — Imperfect Christianity. Greek Church. Remains of Shamanism.
Physical Appearance. — Height, middle ; complexion, light ; face, flat ; beard,
thin ; hair, black, and somewhat curled; eyes, grey ; eyelids, narrow.
Habitations. — Like those of the Turk tribes in their neighbourhood.
Dialects. — Two : a. of the Vereyal of the Gornaya ; b. of the Khirdiyal of
the Lugovaya.
4.
FINLANDERS OF FINLAND.
Localities. — Finland ; settlers in Sweden and Norway.
H 2
100 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIDJE.
Native Name. — Suomolaiset.
Swedish. — Fin.
Norwegian. — Q waen.
Dialects. — .a Finlandic Proper ; b. Savolax, spoken in Savolax, and Carelia.
Religion. — Lutheranism.
Finnish words. — Kanguri = weaver, seppa = smith, wapa =. freeman, orya,
palvelya = slave, myyda, ostaa = buy and sell, yuoma = ale, kalya = beer,
kandele, youhe-kandele = musical instruments, keriazr book, raamattu — writing.
ENGLISH. FINLANDIC. SWEDISH.
King,
Kunengas,
Konung.
Prince,
Rnhtinas,
Thruhtin.
Judge,
Duomari,
Domare.
Cheese,
Yuusto,
Ost.
Wine,
Saxan wiina,*
Viin.*
Rye,
Ruis,
Rug.
Oats,
Havra,
Haver.
Two lists, one of Finlandic, and one of Swedish, words
have been placed at the head of the present section, for
the sake of serving as an introduction to some of the
questions contained in it, They are all taken from Runs'
work on Finland and its inhabitants, where the analysis
of the language serves instead of historical testimony.
By observing what terms are native, and what are
Swedish, we separate the early native civilization of
Finland, from the civilization introduced from Sweden.
Thus, on looking over the preceding glosses, we find
that the only terms applicable to a social or political
constitution, are those for slave and freeman ; king, ruler,
judge, &c., being expressed by Swedish words. So also
with the industrial trades ; weaving was Finnic from
the beginning, and so was smiths-work ; but the carpenter,
the builder, the skip-builder, are importations, and so on.
There are native terms for buying and selling, for ale
and beer, and for more than two musical instruments ; but
there are no native terms for wine, and none for dancing.
For the metals, and agriculture, the terms are almost
* Saxon ( German ) wine..
ESTHONIANS, LAPLANDERS, HUNGARIANS. 101
alway.s native. Cheese, however, on the one side, and
gold, tin, and lead, on the other, have Swedish names.
So have oats and rye.
Music, and songs, and a mythology belonged to the early
Finlanders ; the second being always accompanied by the
first, and the three illustrating each other.
The great foreign influence that has affected the Fin-
landers of Finland, is the Swedish, and this may be con-
sidered to have been in steady and continuous operation,
from the reign of Eric the Holy, in the A.D. 1156. This
king, bent upon conquest and conversion, landed in South
Finland, and founded what was then a new mission or
colony, in the present province of Nyland (Newland).
From this point, the power of Sweden gradually spread
towards the inner portions of the country ; northwards
and eastwards : not unopposed, but opposed ineffectually,
by the heathens of Tawastaland arid Carelia.
5.
ESTHONIAN FINS.
Locality. — South of the Baltic, in Esthonia, Livonia, and part of Courland.
Conterminous with the Russians, and the Courland Lithuanians.
Dialects. — Two : the common Esthonian, and the Esthonian of Dorpat.
Native Name. — Rahwas ; of the country Marahwas.
6.
THE LAPLANDERS.
Habits. — Nomadic.
Religion. — Imperfect Christianity of the Greek Church with the Russian ;
imperfect Protestantism with the Swedish and Norwegian Laplanders.
Native Name. — Same, Sabome.
7.
HUNGARIANS.
Locality. — Hungary; mixed with German, Slavonic, and Wallachian tribes.
Native Name. — Majiar.
The Majiars are Ugrian, the country from which they
descended being that of the Bashkirs, conterminous with
the southern limits of the present Ugrian area, of which it
was once a part. The date of their migration is about
A.D. 900.
102 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
From extending farther than Hungary they were pre-
vented by the two great victories of Henry the Fowler in
935 A.D.
Those who would connect the present Hungarians with
the Huns of Attila, must also make the Huns Ugrian ;
since no fact is more undeniable than the Ugrian cha-
racter of the Majiars. The reasons against this have
been given already. They are, undoubtedly, scanty.
Still they preponderate over those of the other view ;
which consist only in inferences from the term Hungary.
Lest these be overrated, two facts should be remem-
bered : —
1st. — That the name is Russian and not native.
2nd. — That the -n- is no original part of the word ; the
older Slavonic forms being Ugri, Uhri, and only in the
later dialects, Ungri.
The Majiars must necessarily be a very mixed race ;
their country having been that of the old Pannonian
population (probably Slavonic) ; of the Romans of both
the eastern and western empire ; of the Goths, the Huns,
the Avars, the Gepidse, and the Comanians.
This is what history suggests. To have assumed an
intermixture, for the sake of accounting for the physical
and moral difference between such extreme Ugrian forms
as the Majiar and Laplander, would have been illegitimate.
In reality, however, the difference between the Majiar
and Lap, is less remarkable than that between the
Lap and Finlander ; since, in this latter case, the con-
trast is nearly as great, whilst the climatologic conditions
are less dissimilar.
The Majiar is the only member of the Ugrian family,
which has effected, within the historical period, a perma-
nent conquest over any portion of the lapetida.
UGRIANS. 103
The Ugrians supply a good example of what may be
called a receding frontier. Their area has at one time been
greater than at present. Southwards and westwards it
was once prolonged. Hence, the Ugrian has been dis-
placed, or encroached upon by others. It is well to note
this. It is better still to take it in conjunction (or con-
trast) with the Turk area. There the frontier has en-
croached. At an earlier period it was less extensive than
at present.
In one quarter, perhaps in others, the Ugrian frontier
has encroached, i.e. on that of the Majiars.
In one quarter, perhaps in others, the Turk frontier has
receded, i.e. the Comani have become either extinct or a
mixed breed in Hungary.
Nevertheless, as a rule, the Turks frontier has encroach-
ed ; the Ugrian receded. The practical application of this
distinction is wide. When we know whether a given
family habitually extends, or habitually contracts its area,
we know what will be the probable distribution of the
unfixed ancient tribes on the frontier.
In the critical ethnology of the classical writers many
problems must be worked in this way ; the inferences in
the two alternatives being diametrically the reverse of each
other.
1. In a people with an habitually encroaching frontier, no
tribe described by earlier writers as lying beyond its present
geographical area, is to be considered as having formed
part of it (i.e. the family with an encroaching frontier).
2. In a people with an habitually receding frontier,
many tribes described by earlier writers as lying beyond
its present geographical area may (and often must) be con-
sidered as so doing.
Hence, in the present pair of instances, many localities
104 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
once other than Turk are now Turk ; * whilst, on the
other hand, many localities once Ugrian are now other
than Ugrian. f
What, then, was the maximum extension southward
of the Ugrian area before its frontier receded under the
triple encroachments of the Turks of Russian Asia, the
Russians of Russia, and the Norwegians and Swedes of
Scandinavia ? Possibly over the whole Scandinavian penin-
sula, possibly as far as the lower Don, Volga, and Dnieper.
These, however, are geographical frontiers ; frontiers less
important, and less capable of solution than the ethnolo-
gical ones. Were the Ugrians ever conterminous with
other divisions of the human race than those which they
come in contact with at present ? There is no evidence
that they were.
What ancient nations were Ugrian ? Omitting, for the
present, the tribes of Scythia, we may answer that the
following were certainly so.
1. The j32stii. — Modern Esthonians.
2. The Finni and Skrithifinni.
3. The Sitones. — The Ugrians of the Baltic were
known to the classical writers through the Germans. The
names prove this. The ^Estii were the people east of
those who described them. The term Fin is known to no
Ugrian, but to their Gothic neighbours only. The notice
of Tacitus as to the Sitones is similarly capable of expla-
nation.
The Finland word kainu = a low country. A portion
of the Finlanders call themselves Kainulainen (Singular),
Kainulaiset (plural.)
Now this sectional name in Finland is the general name
in Scandinavia ; so that the Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians
* Asia Minor and Thrace. t Many parts of Russia.
UGRIANS. 105
call the Finlanders Kwaen. In Scandinavian, however,
Qvinde = women. Hence, Tacitus was persuaded by his
direct or indirect German informants that the Sitones
were subject to female government. — " Suionibus Sitonum
gentes continuantur. C&tera similes, uno differunt, quod
fcemina dominatur? * Lest any doubt should remain as
to Tacitus having been told of a country of women, I may
add that —
a. Alfred -f- speaks of a Cvenaland=land of Kweens.
b. The Norse f Sagas of a Keenugard = home of Kweens.
c. Adam-f- of Bremen of terra fceminarum, and Amazons.
The first two facts prove the name, the second the false
interpretation of it.
Far more full, however, than the classical writers are
the old Norse Sagas in respect to the Ugrians. Of these
the Beormas, or Permians, were wealthy and commercial ;
men sometimes to be dealt with, sometimes to be robbed.
The Laps, on the other hand, were feared as magicians,
or as men skilled in metallurgy ; and, according to those
who have studied the philosophy of mythologies, they have
supplied many supernatural elements in the way of dwarfs
and goblins.
In the ethnology of Scandinavia — in the skilful and in-
dustrious hands of Retzius, Eschricht, Nilson, Kaiser, and
others — Ugrian archaeology, and Ugrian craniology, are
pre-eminently prominent. The numerous barrows of Scan-
dinavia are attentively studied ; arid observation has shown
that the older the tomb, and the greater the proportion of
instruments found within it not made of iron (but of greater
antiquity than the art of forging that metal) the less doli-
khokephalic, and the more brakhykephalic, (or Ugrian,) is
the skull. Hence comes the inference that the southward
* Germania, 45. t Zeuss, v. Fmni,and p. 157-
106 TURANIAN ALTAIC MONGOLIA.
extension of barrows, containing remains of the sort in
question, is a measure of the southward extension of the
Ugrian family.
Two other matters are of importance in Ugrian eth-
nology— the remains of their ancient Shamanism, and the
Finland Runot.
In respect to the former, the Ugrians are the first people
wherein we find the original Paganism in more tribes than
one ; so that it can be studied in its minute differences, as
well as in its general character. Its essential identity,
however, is remarkable. The Supreme Deity is Yumel,
Yubmel, Yumala, or some slightly modified name ; and
that from the Morduin country to Lapland. Except
this notice of the extent to which similarity of creed, as
well as similarity of language, connects the Ugrians, no
further remarks will be made at present.
The Runot is the name for the popular poems of Fin-
landers. In few nations are they more numerous. In
none more carefully collected. I believe that the chief
one partakes of the nature of an epic, and relates the wars
between the Laps and Fiulanders. Others are short, lyri-
cal, and adapted to music. The term Runot (the plural
form) is suspiciously similar to the Scandinavian word,
Runa, with a not dissimilar meaning (furrow, carving,
letter, spell, verse, poem). Finland archaeologists, however,
repudiate this, and claim it as an indigenous word, on the
strength of certain derivative forms, like runionecJca —poet.
This is not conclusive. Nor is it necessary for the main
fact, which is the existence of a home-grown poetical
literature of more than average merit, and implying musi-
cal taste for the Finlandic portion of the Ugrian branch
— of the Turanian group — of the Altaic Mongolidae.
B.
DIOSCURIAN MONGOLIA;.
THE term Dioscurian is taken from the ancient sea-port
Dioscurias. Here it was that the chief commerce between
the Greeks and Romans, and the natives of the Caucasian
range took place. According to Pliny,* it was carried on
by one hundred and thirty interpreters, so numerous were
the languages. Without raising the number thus high,
the great multiplicity of mutually unintelligible tongues is
still one of the characteristics of the parts in question.
And this fact has determined the application of the term.
To have used the word Caucasian would have been cor-
rect, but inconvenient. It is already mVapplied in
another sense, i.e., for the sake of denoting the so-called
Caucasian race, consisting, or said to consist, of Jews,
Greeks, Circassians, Scotchmen, ancient Romans, and
other heterogeneous elements. In this sense it has been
used in more than one celebrated work of fiction. In
such, and in such only, it is otherwise than out of place.
DIOSCURIAN NATIONS AND TRIBES.
Physical Conformation. — Modified Mongol.
Languages. — Paurosyllabic,t agglutinate ; of all the tongues not Serifonn, the
nearest approaching to an aptotic state.
Area. — The range of Mount Caucasus.
Cftief Divisions. — 1. The Georgians. 2. The Lesgians. 3. The Mizjeji.
4. The Iron. 5. The Circassians.
In few, perhaps, in no part of the present volume, am
* Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chap. 52.
•\ From paurof=few, and syllab<B= syllable.
108 DIOSCURIAN MONGOLIA.
I on more debateable ground than the present. So long
has the term Caucasian been considered to denote a type
of physical conformation closely akin to that of the
lapetidse, (i.e., preeminently European,) that to place the
Georgians and Circassians in the midst of the Mongolidae,
is a paradox. Again, the popular notions founded upon
the physical beauty of the tribes under notice, are against
such a juxta -position ; the typical Mongolians, in this
respect, having never been mentioned by either poet or
painter in the language of praise.
Lastly, it so happens that some of the latest researches
in comparative philology have been undertaken with the
special object of making the philological position of the
Dioscurians coincide with their anatomical one, i.e., of
proving that the languages of the Georgians and the Iron
are to be connected with that of the Greeks and Latins,
just as was the case with their skeletons.
For the sake of laying before the reader the amount
of fact and argument, in contradistinction to the amount
of mere opinion, that is opposed by the position here
assumed for the Dioscurians, I will analyse the grounds
for the current belief under two heads : —
1. The connexion of the Dioscurian nations with those
of Europe, as determined by the evidence of Physical
Conformation. — The really scientific portion of these ana-
tomical reasons consists in a single fact ; which was
as follows. — Blumenbach had a solitary Georgian skull ;
and that solitary Georgian skull was the finest in his
collection : that of a Greek being the next. Hence it
was taken as the type of the skull of the more organized
divisions of our species. More than this, it gave its name
to the type, and introduced the term Caucasian. Never
has a single head done more harm to science than was
DIOSCURIAN NATIONS.
109
done in the way of posthumous mischief, by the head of
this well-shaped female from Georgia. I do not say that
it was not a fair sample of all Georgian skulls. It
might or might not be. I only lay before critics the
amount of induction that they have gone upon.
2. The connexion of the Dioscurian nations with those of
Europe as determined by the evidence of language. — Here
I can only give a sample of the philology which would con-
nect the Georgian with the Indo-European tongues. It
consists in the proof that the Georgian numerals are the
same as the Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Gothic, Slavonic, and
Lithuanic.
ENGLISH. GEORGIAN. MIN
GRELIAN.
arthi . .
shiri.. ..
sumi . .
otchi . .
chuthi . .
apchs'ui
'sqwithi
ruo
c' chore . ,
withi . ,
* SUANIC.* LAZIC.*
. . es'gu .... ar.
. . jeru .... dzur.
. . semi .... dshumi.
. . wors'tcho . . atch.
. . wochus'i . . chut.
. . usgwa .... as*
. . is'gwit .... s'kit.
. . ara ovro.
, . . c'chara. . . . c'choro.
, . . je'st wit.
Two . . .
Three
. . . ori
sami ....
Four . . .
. . . othchi ....
Six
Eight . . .
. . . r\va
Ten ...
. . . athi
ONE — Es'gu, Suanic := eka, Sanskrit ; jek, Persian, the
£#«- in ii*a-rs£o;, and g«-a<rrof, Greek.
One — erthi, Georgian ; arthi, Mingrelian ; ar, Lazic.
Here the forms are different from the Suanic esgu, and
have a different origin. Esgu is a true cardinal, just
as one is a true cardinal. The Georgian, Mingrelian, and
Suanic forms, are not originally cardinal, but derivative
from the ordinal, just as would be the case in English, if,
instead of saying one, two, &c., we said, first, second, &c.
Now the root of the ordinal cardinal of the Georgian,
Mingrelian, and Lazic ar, is the teg- in the Greek, T£<w-ro£,
* Dialects of the Georgian.
110 DIOSCURIAN MONGOLIA.
the p-r- in the Lithuanic pir-mas, the fr- in the Moeso-
Gothic, fr-ums, and the pr- in the Sanskrit pr-atamas ; the
initial p having being lost, just as the initial s in the
Sanskrit sru, =. to flow, is lost in the Greek pea, and the
Latin ruo. Hence, arti = , by rati metathesis, just as
the Lithuanic pirmas — the Latin primus. The t is the
r of KQU-T-OS.
Two — Ori, Georgian ; dva, Sanskrit ; &/-, Greek ; duo,
Latin, &c.
Three = sami, Georgian ; dschumi, Lazic ; tre, Sanskrit ;
rg>/a, Greek; tres, Latin ; three, English, &c. Here t
becomes s, r is ejected, and m is added, upon the assump-
tion of reflected ordinal.*
Four = wors'tcho, Suanic. A transposition of tchowors
= the Sanskrit c'atvaras. — Here, remember the Gothic
and Welsh forms, fidvor, and pedwar, respectively.
Five = wochus'i, Suanic. The wo- of this form is the
pa- of the Sanskrit pa-nc'a, whilst the -chu- is the c'a of
the same word. The -t- is the t of the Slavonic forms,
yya-(/=five ; ses-tj = six; devja-ti = nine, and desja-ti =
ten.
Six = e&hwssi, Georgian = sas, Sanskrit ; csvas, Zend ;
achses, Tron.
Seven = swidi, Georgian. A transposition of siwdi =
supta, Sanskrit ; septem, Latin ; iVra, Greek, See. It
is stated of the numbers six and seven that " their Tndo-
European origin is preeminently capable of proof."
Eight = rwa, ruo, &c. = asta, Sanskrit. Here the s is
lost, as in Hindostani, and Bengali, af, and at ; t becomes
d ; and d is changed to r.
The numeral nine is let alone.
* It is a general accredited fact, that in some cardinals we have the sign of
the ordinal. Thus the -m in dece-m, as compared with Stx«, is reasonably sup-
posed to be the -m- in deci-m-its.
DIOSCURIAN NATIONS. Ill
Ten =jest, Suanic = das a, Sanskrit.
I do not say that there may not be letter-changes which
make all this feasible. There may or may not be. I
only lay before critics, the amount of change assumed.
In 1845, I announced, at the meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, that the
closest philological affinity of the Dioscurian languages
was with the Aptotic ones. This I had brought myself
to believe from a comparison of the words only. Soon
afterwards, Mr. Norriss, of the Asiatic Society, instead
of expressing surprise at my doctrine, said that, upon
grammatical grounds, he held the same opinion.
How far these views are founded on fact, may be seen
from the forthcoming samples of two Dioscurian gram-
mars, and of a short Dioscurian vocabulary, compared
with those of the Seriform tongues. The two together
form but a small fraction of the evidence that can be
adduced. It is as much, however, as is admissible in a
work like the present.
Physiological objections, based upon the symmetry of
shape, and delicacy of complexion, on the part of the
Georgians and Circassians, I am, at present, unable to
meet. I can only indicate our want of osteological data,
and remind my reader of the peculiar climatologic condi-
tions of the Caucasian range ; which is at once temper-
ate, mountainous, wooded, and in the neighbourhood of
the sea — in other words, the reverse of all Mongol areas
hitherto enumerated. Perhaps, too, I may limit the
extent of such objections as a matter of fact. It is only
amongst the chiefs where the personal beauty of the male
portion of the population is at all remarkable. The til-
lers of the soil are, comparatively speaking, coarse and
unshapely.
U2 DIOSCURIAN MONGOLIA.
GEORGIANS.
Divisions. —I. Eastern Georgians. 2. Western Georgians. 3. South-western
Georgians. 4. Northern Georgians.
EASTERN GEORGIANS.
Locality. — The head-waters of the Kur.
Name. — Cartulinian, from the Province called Carthueli, the ancient Iberia.
The Cartulinian dialect is the Georgian of Teflis, and the Georgian of the
Georgian literature.
Alphabet. — Peculiar. Probably derived from the Armenian.
WESTERN GEORGIANS.
Localities. — Guriel, Imeretia, and Mingrelia, i.e., the valley of Phasis.
Name. — Mingrelian.
Language. — More like the Lazic than it is to either the Cartulinian or the
Suanic
SOUTH-WESTERN GEORGIANS.
Locality. — Lazistan.
Geographical Limits. — From the promontory of Kyemer-Burnu, east of Rizeh,
east of Trebizond to the mouth of the Tchorok, south of Batoum. Not further
than the Tchorok inland.
Political Relations. — Subject to Turkey.
Religion. — Mahometan; converted about 1580, A.D. Previously (at least in
the reign of Justinian) Christians of the Greek Church.
Alphabet. — Arabic. Native literature none or scanty. Sub-dialects numerous,
according to Rosen one for almost every valley. Greek words intermixed ; some,
probably, of considerable antiquity.
NORTHERN GEORGIANS.
Locality. — The head-waters of the Tzchenistoquali, or Lasch-churi ; the
Hippus of the ancients.
Name. — Suanic.
Conterminous with the Northern Mingrelian dialects of the Georgian, and the
Absne dialect of the Circassian. Less like any of the other Georgian dialects
than they are to each other. The Suanians call —
Themselves, S'wan
The Caratschai Turks, Ows.
The Absn6, Mibchaz
The Iron, Sawi-ar.
The East Georgians, M'Jcarts.
The West Georgians, Mimrel.
The Mingrelians, Mumgrel.
Descent. — As the Georgians may reasonably be con-
sidered to be the aborigines of the locality which they, at
GEORGIANS. 113
present, inhabit, they come before us as an ancient people.
The Greek poet, who first sung of the Argonauts, knew,
at least, enough of Colchis to make it a local habitation
for his heroine — though that was not knowing much.
The earliest navigator of the Euxine knew more ; for, pos-
sibly, at a period anterior to the colonization of Asia Minor,
he knew it as a real land. The ^Egyptians, at the time of
Herodotus, knew enough of it to claim it as a conquest
of the great Sesostris. With this claim the question of
purity of the Georgian race commences.
Two separate and definite immigrations have been sup-
posed to have introduced into Colchis new ethnological
elements.
1. The settlement from ^Egypt wilder ike reign of the
Great Sesostris.
In §§ 103 — 105, of his Second Book, Herodotus writes
thus : — Sesostris " overturned both the Scythians and the
Thracians ; and here, in my mind, the ^Egyptian army
reached its furthest point. Thus far the pillars in ques-
tion appear ; beyond, there are none. From these parts
he turned back, and when he came to the river Phasis,
I am unable to say truly, which of two things occurred ;
whether the King himself, having separated a portion of
his army, left it as a settlement in the country, or
whether some of his soldiers, harassed by their wander-
ings, stayed behind on that river. For the Colchians are
evidently ./Egyptians. I say this, having observed it
myself, before I heard from any one else. And, whilst I
was considering it, I asked both ; and the Colchians
remembered the ^Egyptians better than Egyptians the
Colchians. The ^Egyptians said, that they thought that
the Colchians were from the army of Sesostris. This is
what I guessed myself, from the fact of their being both
114- DIOSCURIAN MONGOLIA.
black-skinned and curly-haired. This, however, goes for
nothing. Others are so also. The main reason is that
the Colchians, the Egyptians, and the Ethiopians are
the only men who originally practised circumcision : since
the Phoenicians and the Syrians of Palestine confess that
they learned it of the Egyptians ; whilst the Syrians
about the rivers Thermodon and Parthenius, and the Ma-
crones, who are their neighbours, say that they learned
it recently, from the Colchians. Come, now, I must men-
tion another fact concerning the Colchians, wherein they
resemble the Egyptians. They and the Egyptians are
the only ones who work flax in the same way. And the
whole manner of life and language are mutually alike.
The flax from Colchis is called by the Greeks, Sardonicon :
that from Egypt, Egyptian.'1''
As no external evidence will make it probable that the
Georgians, as a nation, are of Egyptian origin, and as,
on the other hand, Herodotus speaks from personal obser-
vation, the exact truth is not easily attainable. Probably,
there was an Egyptian colony on the Black Sea. Pos-
sibly — though not probably — the Colchians were not
Dioscurian aborigines, but immigrants.
2. The Orpelian settlement from China. — In the thir-
teenth century, according to those who are most willing
to allow a comparatively high antiquity to Armenian litera-
ture, a work was composed in Armenian, by Stephen,
Archbishop of Siounia. In this, it is stated that a noble
family, called Ouhrbelean, or Orpelian, entered Georgia,
settled on the frontiers of Orpeth, and became the founders
of one of the great families of Georgia ; to which family
the historian himself belonged. Finally, it is added, that
this family came from Djenasdan or China. This is pro-
bably a mere tradition ; one which, even if true, would
GEORGIANS. 1 1 5
denote an immigration wholly unconnected with the real
ante-historical relations between Caucasus and the Seri-
form area.
The true elements of intermixture with the Georgian
family have been Greek, Persian, Armenian, Turk, and
Russian ; as may be collected from the history of the
country. The amount of Lesgian, Iron, Mizjeji, and
Circassian blood is uncertain.
The safest view to be taken of the history of Georgian
civilization is to remember that, different as may be the
languages of Georgia and Armenia, the political history
and the local relations are alike, and have generally been
so. The Christianity of Georgia was from Armenia ; so
was its literature ; so also its alphabet — although in their
present rounded form its letters are very unlike the square
and angular characters of Armenia.
THE LESGIANS.
Locality. — Eastern Caucasus, or Daghestan.
Name.— No native general name. Called by the Circassians Hhannoatshe ;
by the Tshetshentsh, Sueli.
Dialects. — 1. Avar, spoken by the tribe who call themselves Marulan,=moun-
taineers, from Marul = mountain. Falling into the Anzukh, Tshari, Andi, Ka-
butsh, Dido (?), Unso (?) sub-dialects. 2. Kasi-kumuk. 3. Akush — sub-dialect
Kubitsh. 4. K ura of South Daghestan.
THE MIZJEJI.
Locality. — West and north-west of the Lesgians.
Name. — Not native.
Divisions. — 1. Galgai, Halha, or Ingush. 2. Kharabulakh or Arshte. 3.
Tshetshentsh. 4. Tushi.
THE IRON.
Locality. — Central Caucasus ; conterminous with the Mizjeji on the East, the
Georgians on the south, the Circassians on the north, and Imeretia on the west.
Name. — Called by themselves Iron, by the Georgians, Osi (Plural Oseti).
As the single skull of the Georgian female did all the
mischief in the physiological ethnography of Caucasus, an
Iron vocabulary has been the prime source of error in
r 2
116 DIOSCURIAN MONGOLIA.
the way of its philology. Klaproth considered that the
number of words common to the Iron* and Persian lan-
guages was sufficient to place the former amongst the
Indo-European languages. More than this, there were
historical grounds for believing that the Iron was the
ancient language of Media f — also of the Alani of the
later Roman empire. No man believed all this more
than the present writer until the appearance of Rosen's
sketch of the Iron (Ossetic) grammar. He now believes
that the Iron is more Chinese than Indo-European.
Assuming, however, that Klaproth's position is cor-
rect, it follows that as the Georgian is undoubtedly akin
to the Iron, it may be Indo-European also. This is the
view taken by Professor Bopp, from whose work, in favour
of this position of the Georgian, the criticism relating to
the numerals was taken. The method is as exceptionable
as the result. If the Georgian be Indo-European, the
Chinese is Indo-European also ; and if the vaunted laws
concerning the permutation and transition of letters lead
to such philological leger-de-main as is to be found in
more than one work of the German school, our scholarship
is taking a retrograde direction.
However, the character of the Iron grammar is as
follows : —
The declension of nouns is simple ; being limited to two
numbers and four cases. Herein the inflection expressive
of number can be separated from the inflection expressive
of case — as fid-\ = of a father, fid-f-i = of fathers. Further-
more, the sign of case follows that of number. Such
is the structure of case and number in Iron, and such the
sequence of the respective inflections expressive of each.
* Quoted under the name Ossetic.
t Asia Polyglotta, vox, Osseti.
IRON LANGUAGE.
117
Singular.
Norn. fid*
Plural.
fid-t'-a
Gen.
fid-i
fid-t'-i
Dat.
fid-en
fid-t'-am
ALL
fid-6i
fid-t'-6i.
Norn.
moif
raoi-t'a
(!en.
moi-i
moi-t'i
Dat.
rnoi-en
moi-t -am
Abl.
moi-£i
moi-t'-ei.
The comparative degree is formed by the addition of
-dar ; as chorz = good, chorz-dar = better. This has an
Indo-European look. Compare it with the -7&g of the
Greek comparatives. No superlative inflection.
The true personal pronouns (i. e., those of the two
first persons) are as follows ; —
A.
1. Az = I. Defective in the oblique cases.
2. Man, or ma — Defective in the nominative singular.
Sing.
Plural.
»r.
Vi
/ V O/H •
Gen.
man-i
nicicn
mach-i
Dat.
man- an
mach-6n
A ecus.
man
mach
Abl.
man-6i
mach-ei.
B.
Nom.
di
si-mach
Gen.
daw-i J
si-mach-i
Dat.
daw-on
si-mach-6n
Accus.
daw
si-mach
Abl.
da-wei
si-mach-6i.
The signs of the persons are considered to be eminently
Indo-Germanic. They are -in, -is, -i ; -am, -uf, -inc ; e. g.
* Fid = father.
t Moi = husband.
J Or dachi.
118 DIOSCURIAN MONGOL/ID^.
Qus-»n =: aud-io Qus-a/w = AuA-imus
Qus-is = aud-ts Qus-w*' = aud-tYts
Qus-t = aud-zY Qus-tne' = axA-iunt.
I am as little prepared to deny as to affirm the likeness.
The addition of the sound of t helps to form the Iron
preterite. I say helps, because if we compare the form
s-ko-i-on = I made, with the root kan, or the form fe-qus-
i-on = / heard, with the root qus, we see, at once, that the
addition of t is only a part of an inflection. Nevertheless,
I am as little prepared to deny as to affirm its identity
with the Persian d.
Beyond this, the tenses become complicated ; and that
because they are evidently formed by the agglutination
of separate words ; the so-called imperfect being un-
doubtedly formed by affixing the preterite form of the
word to make ; thus used as an auxiliary. The perfect
and future seem similarly formed, from the auxiliary = le,
This may be collected from the following paradigms.
1.
Root, u, &c., = be. (Aumliar.)
Plural — Present, st-am, st-ut, i-st-i = sumus, estis, stint.
Singular — Preterite, u-t-an, u-t-as, u-d-i =fui, fuisti, fuit.
Singular — Future, u-gin-an, u-gfn-as, u-gen-i = ero, eris, erit.
Imperative fau = esto.
Root, k'an = make. (Auxiliar.)
Preterite, = s-k'o-t-on,* B-k'o-t-ai, s-k'o-t-a = fed, fecisti, fecit.
3.
Root, kus = hear.
INDICATIVE.
Sing. Plural.
Present, 1. Qus-t'« Qus-aw.
2. Qus-u Qus-w<"
3. Qns-t Qus-zW.
* Or fa-ko-t-oii, &c.
IRON LANGUAGE.
INDICATIVE.
Imperfect,
Perfect,
Future,
Present,
Sing.
1.
2.
3.
1. fe-qus-t-on
2. fe-qus-t-ai
3. fk-qus-t-a
1. \>a.\-qus-g'in-an
2. \>a\-qus-g'in-as
3.
Plural.
Qus-ga-k' o-t-am
Qas-ga-k'o-t-af
Qus-ga-k' o-t-oi
fe-qus-t-am
K-qus-t-at'
fe-qus-t-oi
loai-qus-g'i-stam
\>a.\-qus-g'i-stu(
bai-qus-g'i-sti
CONJUNCTIVE.
qus-a?»
1. qus-o»
2. qus-az
3. qus-«i
Imperfect, 1 . q\is-ga-k'an-on
2. qas-ga-k'an-ai
3. qus-ga-k'an-a
IMPERATIVE.
qus-o*
qus-ga-k'an-at'
qus-ga-k'an-oi
2. bai-qtts
3. bai-<?ws-a
INFINITIVE, qus-in.
Participles, Qus-ajr, qus-gond,
bai-</ws-«w
l>ai-qus-ut'
bai-qus-oi
It may safely be said, that no Dioscurian language is
more Indo-European than the Iron.
CIRCASSIANS.
Locality. — West Caucasus.
Divisions. — 1. True Circassians, calling themselves Adig6. 2. Absne.
Subdivisions of the Absne. 1. Absn6. 2. Tepanta (or Alte-kesek).
It may safely be said that no Dioscurian language is
less Indo-European than the Circassian. Such being the
case, its grammar forms a proper complement to that of
the Iron.
In respect to its sounds, it has the credit, even in Cau-
casus, of being the most harsh and disagreeable language
of the Caucasian area ; consonants being accumulated,
and hiatus being frequent.
The declensional inflections are preeminently scanty.
120 DIOSCURIAN MONGOLIA.
In English substantives there is a sign for the possessive
case, and for none other. In Absne there is not even
this — ab — father, ace — horse; ab ace —father's horse,
(verbally, father horse). In expressions like these, posi-
tion does the work of an inflection.
Judging from Eosen's example, the use of prepositions
is as limited as that of inflections, sara s-ab ace isfap
I my-father horse give, or giving am ; abna amusw izbit =
wood bear see-did — I saw a bear in the wood ; awine wi as-
wke=. (in) house two doors ; dee sis lit = (on) horse mount-
I-did.
Hence declension begins with the formation of the
plural number. This consists in the addition of the
syllable Ttwa.
Ac<t — horse; dce-fcwa — horses.
Atsla == tree; atsla-k'wa = trees.
Awine, = house; awine-k'wa — houses.
In the pronouns there is as little inflection as in the
substantives and adjectives, i. e. there are no forms cor-
responding to mihi, nobis, &c.
1. When the pronoun signifies possession, it takes an
inseparable form, is incorporated with the substantive
that agrees with it, and is s- for the first, w- for the
second, and i- for the third person singular. Then for
the plural it is h- for the first person, s'- for the second, r-
for the third : ab = father ;
S-ab = my father ; h-ab = our father.
W-ab = thy father ; s'-ab =• your father.
T-ab = his (her) father; r-ab = their father.
2. When the pronoun is governed by a verb, it is inse-
parable also ; and similarly incorporated.
3. Hence, the only inseparable form of the personal
pronoun is, when it governs the verb. In this case the
forms are :
CIRCASSIANS. 121
Sa-ra =. I Ha-ra — we
Wa-ra = thou S'a-ra = ye
Ui — he U-barf — they.
In sa-ra, wa-ra, Jia-ra, s'a-ra, the -ra is non-radical.
The word u-barf is a compound.
The ordinal = first is acJiani. This seems formed
from oka = one.
The ordinal = second is agi. This seems unconnected
with the word wi- = two ; just as in English, second has
no etymological connection with two.
The remaining ordinals are formed regularly, by pre-
fixing to the radical part of their respective cardinals, -«,
and affixing -nto.
Cardinals. Ordinals.
3, Chi-6«* A-chi-nto
4, P's'i-ba A-p's'i-nto
5, Chu-ba A-chu-nto
6, F-ba F-into
7, Bis'-6a Rs-into
8, Aa-ba A-a-nto
9, S'-ba S'b-iwto
10, S'wa-Sa Sw-ento.
In the Absne verbs the distinction of time is the only
distinction denoted by any approach to the character of an
inflection ; and here the change has so thoroughly the
appearance of having been effected by the addition of
some separate and independent words, that it is doubtful
whether any of the following forms can be considered as
true inflections. They are compounds ; i. e. forms like
can't, won't, Pll ( = / will), rather than forms like spea&s,
spoke ', rg-ry<p-a, &c.
Root, C'wis 1 = ride (equit-o).
\.Present, C'wis'1-op = I ride1* (equit-o).
2. Present, C'wis'1-otY = / am riding.
* Non-radical. t Or, am in the habit of riding.
122 DIOSCURIAN MONGOLID^E,
Imperfect, C'wis'1-an =• equitabam.
Perfect, C'wis'l-# = equitavi.
Plusquamperfect, C'wis'l-c^ere^ equitaueram.
Future, C'wis'1-as'^ — equitabo.
The person and number is shown by the pronoun.
And here must be noticed a complication. The pronoun
appears in two forms : —
1st. In full, sara, wara, &c.
2nd. As an inseparable prefix ; the radical letter being
prefixed and incorporated with the verb. It cannot, how-
ever, be said that this is a true inflexion.
1.
Sing. 1. sara s-c'vfi&l-oit = I ride
2. wara u-c'wisl-oit — thou ridest
3. ui i-c'wi&\-oit = he rides.
2.
Plur. 1 . hara ha-c'v/isl-oit — me ride
2. sara s'-c'wis\-oit — ye ride
3. ubart r-c'wisl-oit = they ride.
Original area. — The northward extension of the pre-
sent Circassian area is limited by the Russians and the
Nogay Turks. Now, as each of these areas has encroached,
it is reasonable to believe that, at_ an earlier period, Cir-
cassian tribes may have extended further northward than
at present. At the same time we must be careful not to
carry them too far ; otherwise we infringe the area of
the Scythians, Sarmatians, and other nations of antiquity ;
who, whatever else they were, were not very likely to
have been Circassian. Some point between the Cuban
and the Don is the likeliest limit for the most northern
Circassians. The old line of frontier on the Caucasian
side is incapable of determination.
Amongst the ancestors of the present Circassians are,
most probably, the Zychi (Achsei), Abasgi, Heniochi,
Cercetse, Makropogones, Sindians, &c.
CIRCASSIANS.
123
The question as to the original population of the country
which now separates the nearest point of the Dioscurian
area from the Seriform, will be considered in the section
upon the distribution of the Iranian portion of the Indo-
European division of the lapetidse. The following is a
selection of words common to the Dioscurian and Aptotic
languages : —
*• English, sky • English, day
• Circassian, whapeh, ivuafe
• Tshetshentsh, dini
• Aka, aupa
Ingush, den
• Khamti, fa
Kasikumuk, kini
English, sky
' Koreng, nin
Jili. t<zncti
• Absne, kaukh
Altekesek, hak
Singpho, sini
' Akush, kaka
English, day
• Burmese, kt/dukk/ie
• Andi, thyal
English, sky
' Garo, solo
. Tshetshentsh, tulak
English, moon
. Koreng, talo
Georgian, twai=:month
. Khoibu, thullung
Suanic, twai
English, sun
• Moitay, ta
Georgian, mse
' English, star
Mingrelian, bsha
• Kasikumuk, zuka
Suanic, mizh
• Garo, asake
' Kuan-chua, zhi
Jili, sakan
Sianlo, suu
Singpho, sagan
' English, fire
' English, hill
• Absne, mza
• Kasikumuk, suntu
Circassian, mafa
' Chinese, shan
. Khamti, fai
Siam,fai
Aka, umma
Abor, erne
Burmese, mi
• English, earth
• Absn6, tshullah
Altekesek, tzula
' Kapwi, talai
Khoibu, tlialai
Karyen, me
Manipur, mai
English, earth
Songphu, mai
• Andi, zkhur
Kapwi, &c., mai
' Mishimi, iari
* The different dots denote the different classes of languages — the first the
English, the second the Dioscurian, the third the Aptotic dialects.
124
DIOSCURIAN MONGOLIA.
English, earth
• Dido, tshedo
• Koreng, kadi
• Englisfi, snow
• Lesgian, asu
Circassian, uas
Abassian, asse
• Chinese, stive
' English, salt
• Lesgian (3), zam
• Chinese, yan
English, salt
• Kabutsh, tshea
Dido, zio
Kasikumuk, pstt
Akush, dze
• Tibetan, tsha
• English, dust
• Tshetshentsh, tshen
' Chinese, tshin
• English, sand
• Avar, tshimig
• Tibetan, bydzoma
' Circassian, pshak/ioh
• Chinese, ska
• English, leaf
• Tshetshentsh, ga
Ingush, ga
• Chinese, ye
• English, tree
• Mizjeji (3), che
Circassian, dzeg
• Chinese, shu
' English, stone
• Andi, hinzo
' Siamese, hin
English, sea
Georgian, sgwa
Chinese, slvuy— water
Tibet, fi=do.
Mon, zhe=.do.
Ava, te=do (5)
• English, river
• Anzukh, or ki/aw
Avar, hor, khor
• Champhung, urai
English, river
• Abassian, aji
• Tibetan, tshavo.
English, river
• Altekesek, sedu
Absne, dzedu
' Songphu, duidai
' English, water
• Avar, htlem, htli
Anzukh, hllim
Tshari, khim
Kabutsh, htli
Andi, ht'len
Dido, tli
English, water
Kasikumuk, sin
Akush, shen
Kubitsh, tzun, sin
' Singpho, ntsin
Jili, mchin
Mainpur, ising
English, water
• Absne, dzeh
• Songphu, dui
Kapwi, tut
Tankhul, tu
English, water
• Mizjeji (3), chi
• Garo, chi
• English, rain
• Andi, za
Ingush, du
Abassian, kua
• Chinese, yu
• English, summer
• Tushi, chko
Mizjeji, achke
Chinese, chia
VOCABULARY.
125
• English, winter
• Anzukh, ttin
Andi, klinu
Kasikumuk, kintul
Akush, cliani
Absne,gene
' Tibetan, r gun
Chinese, tung
' English, cow
' Circassian, bsa
• Tibetan, r situ
' English, dog
• Avar, choi
Andi, choi
Dido, gwai
Kubitsh, koy
Circassian, khhah
' Chinese, keu
Tibetan, kyi
' English, horse
• Lesgian (5), tshu
Circassian, tshe, shu
' Tibetan, r dda
' English, bird
• Awar, /tec/o
• Tankhul, ata
English, bird
• Andi, purtie
• Abor, pettang
Aka, puifah
• English, fish
• Avar (3), tshua
Circassian, bbzheh
• Khamti, pa
Siamese, pla
Aka, ngay
Abor, engo
Burmese, nga
Karyen, nga
Singpho, nga
Songphu, kla
Mishimi, (a
Maram, khai
Luhuppa, khai
Tankhul, Mi
Anam, khi
• English, flesh
• Kabutsh, kho
Abassian, zheh
' Chinese, s/tou
Tibetan, zhsha
' English, egg.
• Tshetshentsh, khtia
' Khamti, khai
' Siamese, Mai
English, egg
• Kabutsh, tshemuza
' Mishimi, mtiumaic
English, egg
' Akush, duMi
' Garo, to'ka
' English, son
• Mizjeji (3), ua, woe
• Tibetan, bu
• English, hair
• Kasikumuk, tshara
' Jili, kara
• Singpho, kara
English, hair
• Avar, sab
Anzukh, sab
Tshari, sab
• Burmese, shaken
Manipur, sam
Songpho (6), sam
English, hair
• Tshetshentsh, kazeresh
' Karyen, khosu
• Tankhul, kosen
126
DIOSCURIAN MONGOLIA.
English, head
Georgian, tawi
Lazic, 1i
Tuanic, tcfium
Chinese, teu, sen
Anam, tu <fu
Ava, kang (5)
English, head
Andi, mier, macer
mur
English, head
Absne. hah., oka
Altekesek, zeka
Karen, kho
Manipur, kok
Tankhul, akao
• English, mouth
• Lesgian, kail
' Chinese, keu
Anamese, kau
Tibetan, ka
English, mouth
•Tushi, bak
• Teina, pak
English, mouth
• Georgian, piri
Mingrelian, pidehi
Tuanic, pil
' A\n,parat (4)
English , mouth
' Kubitsh, mole
' Khoibu, mur
Mating, mur
English, mouth
• Andi, kol, tkol
Lesgian (3), kaal
' Manipur, chil
' English, eye
• Andi, puni
• Chinese, yan
• English, ear
• Avar, een, ain, en
Anzukh, in
Tshari, een, ein
Andi, hanka, andika.
• Burmese, na
Karen, naku
Singpho, na
Songphu, anhubm
Kapwi, kana
Koreng, kon
Marani, inkon
Champhung, khunu
Luhuppa, khana
Tankhul, akhana
Koibu, khana
' English, tooth
• Lesgian (3), sibi
Avar, zari
Circassian, dzeh
• Tibetan, so
Chinese, tshi
' English, tongue
' Circassian, bbse
Absne, ibs
• Tibetan, rdzlie
Chinese, shi
' English, foot
• Kasikumuk, dzhan
• Khamti, tin
English, foot
• Mizjeji (3), kog, ko>
• Manipur, khong
Tankhul, akho
English, foot
• Andi, tsheka
Kubitsh, tag
Jili, takkhyai
Gnro,jachok
English, foot
Georgian, pechi
Maplu, poka=.leg
VOCABULARY.
127
English, finger
Mingrelian, kiti
Moitay, khoit—hand
Play, kozu—do
English, hand
• Georgian, chili
Lazic, ieh
Mingrelian, die
Suanic, shi
• Chinese, shett
English, hand
• Andi, katshu
Kabutsh, koda
• Khoibu, khut
Manipur, khut
• English, blood
• Absn6, tsha, sha
Tshetsentsh, zi
Ingush, zi
' Singpho, sai
Songpho, zyai
Kapwi, the
Maram, azyi
Champhung, azi
Luhuppa, ashi
Tankhul, asu
English, blood
• Dido, 6
• Manipur, i
Koibu, hi
Maring, hi
• Mizjeji (3), zi
English, blood
Tshetshentsh, yioh
Circassian, tlih
Chinese, chiue
English, skin
' English, skin
• Circassian,.^/*
• Chinese, pi'
English, skin
• Dido, bik
• Tibetan, shbagsbba
' English, bone
• Tshetshentsh, dyackt
Ingush, tekhh
Akush, likka
Tshari, rekka
' Khamti, nuk
Siamese, kraduk
English, great
• Georgian, didi
Mingrelian, didi
• Canton, ta
Kuan-chua, ta, da
Tonkin, drai
Cochin-chinese, dai
Tibet, ye
Ava, kyi (5)
Play, du
Teina, to
English, bad
Mingrelian, moglach
Suanic, choya
' Chinese, go gok
Mon, kah
Ava, makavng (4)
• English, warm
• Ingush, tau
• Tibetan, dzho
• English) blue
• Mizjeji (3), siene
' Chinese, zing
Tibetan, swongbba
• English, yellow
• Circassian, khozh
Abassian, kha
' Chinese, chuang
• English, green
• Avar, ursheria
Anzukh, ordjin
Ingush, send
' Tibetan, shjanggu
128
VOCABULARY.
English, below
Georgian, kwewrt, kwerno
Ava, haukma (3)
Yo, auk
Passuko, hoko
Kolaun, akoa
' English, one
. Lesgian, zo
Akush, za
Andi, sew
Dido, zis
Kasikumuk, zaba
Mizjeji (3), tza
Abassian, seka
• Tibetan, dzig
English, three
• Georgian, sami
Lazic, jum
Mingrelian, sami
Suanic, semi
• Canton Chinese, sam
Kuanchua, san
Tonkin, tarn
Tibetan, sum
M6n, sum
Ava (4), thaum
Siam (6), sam
English, four
• Abassian, pshi-ba
• Tibetan, bshi
Chinese, szu
English, five
Georgian, chuthi
Lazic, chut
Mingrelian, chuthi
Suanic, wochu'si
Ava, yadu (4)
• English, six
• Tshetshentsh,
Ingush, yatsh
Tushi, itsh
' Tibetan, dzhug.
' English, nine
• Circassian, bgu
' Tibetan, rgu
Chinese, kieu
• English, ten
' Circassian, pslie
Abassian, zlieba
• Tibetan, bdzhu
Chinese, sJd
c.
THE OCEANIC MONGOLID^.
The epithet Oceanic is applied to this group because, with the exception of the
Peninsula of Malacca, the tribes belonging to it are the inhabitants of islands
exclusively.
DIVISIONS.
1. THE AMPHINESIAN* STOCK.
2. THE KEL^NONESIAN* STOCK.
THE ocean is the highway between tribe and tribe, or
nation and nation, just in proportion as there is the skill,
the experience, the courage and the necessary equipment
for using it. As long as the mariner's compass was undis-
covered the New World was isolated from the Old. To
the Turk on the Hellespont, in the deficiency of even the
rudest elements of water-transport, the narrow stream was
an obstacle. Hence the unscientific character of all a priori
generalizations respecting the influence of land or water
as the means of national intercommunication, or as ele-
ments of ethnographical dispersions. The desert, the prai-
rie, or the ocean, are boundaries that limit, or paths that
extend, the diffusion of tribes and nations, just in propor-
tion as there is the camel, the horse, or the ship to make
them available.
How nations may effect an extension over continuous
tracts of land, has been seen in the examination of the
Great Turk area ; how nations may effect an extension
* Terras applied to geographical distribution rather than to physical con-
formation ; Malay and Negrito being terms expressive of physical conformation
rather than of geographical distribution.
130 OCEANIC MONGOLID^E.
where the land is disconnected, and where the ocean alone
is the means of communication, will be seen in the exami-
nation of the great Oceanic area. These two forms of
extension stand in strong contrast to one another.
The best way to appreciate the magnitude of the great
Oceanic area, is to state that with the exception of the
Mauritius, the Isle of Bourbon, Ceylon, the Seychelles, the
Maldives, and the Laccadives in the Indian Ocean, and the
Japanese empire with the islands to the north thereof, in
the Chinese Sea, every inhabited spot of land in the Indian
and Pacific Oceans is inhabited by tribes of one and the
same race.
Or taking the localities more in detail, we may say that
from Madagascar, on the west, to Easter Island, half way
between Asia and America, and from Formosa to the
north, to New Zealand southwards, in the great islands of
Borneo, Sumatra, and New Guinea, in the almost conti-
nental extent of Australia, in groups like the Philippines
and the Moluccas, and in scattered clusters like the Mari-
annes or the other islands of the South Sea, the race is one
and the same — and that race Oceanic.
Add to all this, that those tribes which are found so
widely spread over the face of the ocean, are so spread
almost exclusively. They are not only everywhere in the
islands, but they are well-nigh nowhere on the continent.
In the Peninsula of Malacca, and on no other part of the
main laud of Asia, is an Oceanic tribe to be detected.
In an ethnographical distribution such as this, so remark-
able for both its negative and positive phsenomena, there is
ample ground for speculation ; and of this there has been
abundance. I prefer, however, at present, to suggest a
distinction between the Oceanic area of dispersion and the
Turk.
MALAYS. 131
In respect to the former, the later the date we assign to
it the more explicable are the phaenomena ; in other words,
the more advanced the art of navigation the easier the
extension from island to island.
The converse is the case with the latter. The earlier a
land migration takes place, the less is the resistance of the
nations around it, and, consequently, the greater the facili-
ties of its propagation.
Divisions of the Oceanic Mongolida. — I think that if we
base our primary divisions of the great Oceanic stock upon
difference of physical form, they will not be more than two;
although, by raising the value of certain subdivisions, the
number may be raised to three, four, five, or six.
Now as the value of the members of the Oceanic groups
is a point upon which there is a variety of opinion, and as
the opinion of the present writer as to its unity as a whole,
is at variance with the systems of ethnologists, with whom
he is diffident of disagreeing, it will be well to take more
than usual pains to give prominence to the leading facts
upon which the current opinions are based ; and for the
sake of fuller illustration to carry the reader over the
subject by two ways.
A. One class of the Oceanic islanders is yellow, oliAre,
brunette, or brown, rather than black, with long black and
straight hair ; and when any member of this division is
compared with a native of the continental portions of the
world, it is generally with the Mongol.
B. Another class of the Oceanic islanders is black
rather than yellow, olive, brunette, or brown ; and when
any member of this division is compared with a native of
the continental portions of the world, it is generally with
the Negro. As to the hair of this latter group, it is
always long, sometimes strong and straight ; but, in other
K2
132 OCEANIC MONGOLID^E.
cases, crisp, curly, frizzy, or even woolly. Upon these
differences, especially that of the hair, we. shall see, in
the sequel, that subdi visional groups have been formed.
The social, moral, and intellectual difference between
these two classes, in their typical form, is, certainly, not
less than the physical — probably more. The continuous
geographical area is, — for the black division, New Guinea,
Australia, Tasmania, New Ireland, and the islands between
it and New Caledonia. For the brown division, all the
rest of the Oceanic area, — Sumatra, Borneo, Java, the
Moluccas, the Philippines, the South Sea Islands, the
Carolines, &c.
Now this is one way of viewing the subject, and it is
the way which gives us the contrast in the most marked
manner; the typical instances of each group being put
forward.
But another point of view limits the breadth of
difference.
It may have been noticed by the reader, that in
speaking of the area occupied by the black and brown
nations respectively, I used the word continuous. This
was done for the sake of preparing the way for a new
series of facts. In many of the countries proper and
peculiar to the brown or straight-haired occupants, there
are to be found, side by side with them, darker com-
plexioned fellow-inhabitants ; blackish and black tribes ;
tribes with crisp hair ; tribes with woolly hair ; and tribes
with hair and hue of every intermediate variety. Fur-
thermore, wherever the two varieties come in contact, the
black and blackish tribes are the lower in civilization ;
generally inhabiting the more inaccessible parts of their
respective countries, and, in the eyes of even cautious
theorists, wearing the appearance of being aboriginal.
MALAYS. 133
1. Names. — For the lighter-complexioned, straighter-
haired type — Malay.
2. For the type that partakes of the character of the
African Negro inhabiting New Guinea, Australia, and
what may be called the continuous localities for the un-
mixed Black — Negrito.
3. The tribes with any or all of the Negrito characters,
dwelling side by side with Malays in Malay localities,
or in localities disconnected with the true Negrito area
— the Blacks of the Malayan area.
I.
AMPHINESIANS.
Physical Conformation. — Modified Mongolian. Complexion, different shades of
brown or olive ; rarely black. Hair black, and straight ; rarely woolly ; oftener
(but not often) wavy and curling. Stature from about five feet three, to, per-,
haps, five feet ten.
Languages. — Generally admitted to contain a certain proportion of Malay words.
Area. — The Malayan Peninsula, the Indian Archipelago, Polynesia, Mada-
gascar. (?)
Chief Divisions. — 1. The Protonesians. 2. The Polynesians. 3. The
Malegasi. (?)
PROTONESIAN BRANCH.
Physical Conformation. — Colour- — different shades of brown and yellow. Face,
flat ; nose, short ; eyes and hair, black and straight ; beard, scanty ; stature, short.
Frontal profile, retiring ; maxillary, prognathic ; occipito-frontal, brackykephalic ;
orbits, angular.
Area. — Malayan Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Timor, Borneo, Celebes, the
Moluccas, the Philippines, &c.
Distribution. — With the exception of the Malayan Peninsula, insular. Islands,
large as well as small.
Religion. — Paganism, Hinduism, and Mahometanism.
Social and Physical Development. — Maritime, commercial, and piratical ; im-
perfect agriculture ; never nomadic ; partially industrial. Foreign Influences
— Arabic and Hindu.
MALACCA.
Locality. — The extremity of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula.
Population. — Mahometan Malays ; Blacks of the Malay area ; tribes of inter-
mediate character, both physically and morally.
Dates (real or supposed ). — The foundation of Singhapura (Sincapore) 1160
134 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
A.D. The foundation of Malacca, 1252 or 1260 A.D. The introduction of
Mahometanism, 1276 A.D.
Alphabet. — Arabic. Limited to the Mahometan Malays.
Respecting the Peninsula of Malacca, the most impor-
tant point is the fact of its being the only continental
occupation of any Malay nation. This so naturally sug-
gests the notion of it also being the original country of
the numerous and widely-dispersed Malay tribes, that any
refinement upon the current doctrine seems, at the first
view, out of place. Nevertheless, there is so much room
for the question as to whether Sumatra was peopled from
Malacca, or Malacca from Sumatra, the island from the
peninsula, or the peninsula from the island, that the claims
for Malacca to be considered as the birthplace of the
Malays will stand over until the details of Sumatra have
been considered.
Whatever, however, may be the case with the antiquity
of the people, the language of the peninsula is the standard
Malay. According to Leyden. it is spoken in the greatest
purity in the states of Kedah, Perak, Salangore, Killung,
Johore, Iringano, and Pahang. At Patani it becomes
conterminous with the Siamese. The alphabet is Arabic :
the literary influences are Arabic also; and the highest
degree of antiquity that can be assigned to any proper
Malay work is the epoch of the introduction of Maho-
metanism, i.e. the thirteenth century. In stating this, I
by no means imply that any extant is thus old : I only
imply that none is likely to be older.
The proper Malays themselves, however, are not only
a new people in the peninsula, but they consider them-
selves as such. All the inhabitants older than themselves
they call Orang Eenua, or men of the soil.
I will first give the names of the particular tribes, and
afterwards introduce the more general terms expressive
MALAYS. 135
of the class ; premising that, as a general rule, the Orang
Benua population live apart from the Malays, are found
more in the interior than on the coast, are darker com-
plexioned, and are wilder in their manners.
Halas. — Tattooed, inhabiting the interior of Perak.
Jolong, Belandas, Besisik. — Somewhat shorter than the
Malays, although like them. Hair black, often with a
rusty tinge ; sometimes lank, generally matted and curly,
but not woolly. Eye brighter and more active than that
of the Malay, with the internal angle but little depressed.
Forehead low, not receding. Beard scanty. Legs sturdy.
Chest broad. Nostrils diverging.
The Benuas are divided into tribes, each under an elder,
called Batin, there being under each Batin two subordi-
nates, a Jennang and a Jurokra. The punishments are
bloody, murder being punished by drowning, impaling, and
exposure to the sun ; adultery also being punishable, under
certain circumstances, with death.
In the inheritance of property the custom of primogeni-
ture prevails.
The sun, moon, and stars receive much of their regard ;
perhaps worship. The two superior spirits of whom they
have the most definite conceptions, are named Dewas and
Bilun.
A spirit has his abode in the loftiest mountains. The
priests, whose power is proportionate to the superstition
of the natives, are called Poyangs. The soul of a Poyang
after death is believed to enter into the body of a tiger.
They are adepts in the magic arts of Besawye, Chinder-
wye, and Tuju ; this last enables them to kill their enemies
by the force of spells, however distant. The Besawye
consists in burning incense, muttering spells, and invoking,
by night, the spirit of the mountains.
136 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID^.
Their food is the product of the hunt, not of agri-
culture.
Udai. — The inhabitants of the forests of the northern
part of the peninsula.
Semang. — The same. Complexion dark; hair curly and
matted, but not frizzled. This is what Mr. Newbold
relates ; premising that he had no opportunity of person-
ally judging. Mr. Anderson and Sir S. Raffles describe
this darkness of complexion in stronger terms.
The Semang of Quedah has the woolly hair, protuberant
belly, thick lips, black skin, flat nose, and receding forehead
of the Papuan.
The Semang of Perak is somewhat less rude, and speaks
a different dialect.
More than one Malay informed Mr. Newbold that the
Semangs were essentially the same as the Jokong ; having
the same hair, but a somewhat blacker skin.
They live in rude moveable huts, constructed of leaves
and branches, scantily clothed, and fed from the produce
of the chase, at which they are expert. Their govern-
ment is that of chiefs or elders. The Malays accuse
them of only interring the head, and of eating the rest
of the body, in cases of death.
They dip their weapons in blood when ratifying a
solemn oath.
White is the favourite ; perhaps, the holy colour.
They are fond of music, and have two native instru-
ments— one like a violin, one like a flute.
They use the sumpitan, having three modes of preparing
the poison.
Their dead are buried, sometimes in a sitting posture ;
generally with their arrows, sumpitan, and their most
familar utensils in the same grave.
MALAYS. 137
The remaining aborigines belong to the southern parts
of the peninsula.
Rayet Laut, or Orang Akkye. — Differing from the tribes
last described, only in so far as they are residents of the
sea-coast, not of the interior.
SUMATRA.
The divisions political rather than ethnological — the most important being the
kingdom of Atchin, the Batta country, the kingdom of Menangkabaw, Rejang,
Lampong, and Palembang.
ATCHIN.
Locality. — The Northern or North- Western parts of Sumatra ; conterminal
with the Batta country.
Religion. — Mahometan.
Alphabet. — Arabic.
The Atchin stand apart from the other Sumatrans,
from the extent to which the Arabs have modified them.
The Atchin kingdom, which was powerful when first
visited by the Portuguese, was of Arabic foundation, and
it was through Atchin that the Mahometanism of the
Mahometan Malays was propagated.
THE BATTAS.
Locality. — South of the Atchin country, and nearly covering the northern
third of Sumatra. Conterminous with the Atchin and Menangkabaw.
Religion. — Mahometan.
Alphabet. — Of Indian origin.
The Battas are somewhat shorter and fairer, than the
other Sumatrans ; polygamists ; writing, according to
Leyden, from the bottom of the page to the top ; accre-
dited cannibals.
MENANGKABAW.
Locality. — The centre of Sumatra ; the kingdom being at one time extended
over almost the whole island.
Religion. — Mahometan.
Alphabet. — Arabic.
Language. — Malay of Malacca, or nearly so.
138 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
In its widest extent, the kingdom of Menangkabaw is
a political rather than an ethnographical division. To
make it ethnographical, it must be limited. In this sense
it is conterminous with Atchin and the Battas on the
north, extended from east to west, across the whole island
in (at least) some portions of it, in others, probably inter-
rupted in certain mountain localities of the centre, and
probably interrupted between the river Jambi and Palem-
bang.
Politically speaking, the minor kingdoms of Indrapura,
Anak-sungei, Siak, and Passamang, have grown out of the
breaking up of the great Menangkabaw kingdom. At
present, its pure and almost typical Malayan character —
at least as far as resemblance in language to the Malay of
Malacca is concerned — is all that will be noticed.
REJANG.— LAMPONG.
Locality. — South Sumatra ; conterminal with the Menangkabaw country and
Palembang.
Alphabets. • — Of Indian origin.
Of all the Sumatrans, writes Marsden, the Lampongs
have the strongest resemblance to the Chinese, particularly
in the roundness of the face, and the form of the eye. They
are the fairest people on the island, and the women are
the tallest and best looking ; they are also the most licen-
tious. The Mahometanism of the Lampongs is imperfect ;
much of the old superstition remaining.
The native Sumatran alphabets. — The alphabets of the
Batta, Rejang, and Lampong tribes, are generally called
native, although really of Indian origin. It can scarcely
be said that they embody a literature ; still their existence
is an important fact. A Sumatran manuscript is made of
the inner bark of a tree, prepared and made smooth, and
MALAYS. 139
cut into long strips of several feet in length. These are
folded up afterwards so as to be square, when each square
answers to the page of a book. For commoner purposes
the outer rind of the bamboo is scratched with a style ;
often in a remarkably neat manner. The lines run from
left to right, like the lines of the Hindus, and unlike those
of the Arabs.
The preparation of the bark is to shave it smooth and
thin, and then rub it over with rice-water.
The style is used for scratching bamboos. The pen
is used for the more important writings on bark ; this is a
delicate twig, or the middle of some leaf. The ink is the
root of the dammar pine, mixed with the juice of the
sugar caue.
PALEMBANG.
Locality. — North of Lampong, on the eastern side of the island.
Religion. — Mahometan.
Political relations. — Subject to Java ; and in a great degree, a Javanese
settlement.
The central parts of Sumatra are little known ; the
mountain chain, however, that runs from north to south
in (about) 2° south latitude, has been visited by two Eng-
lishmen, Mr. 0. Campbell and Lieutenant Dane. Their
observations, which are to be found in Marsden's Sumatra,*
apply to three elevated valleys — the Korinchi country,
Serampei, and Sungei Tenang. I find in them no traces
of any tribe different from those already mentioned in any
important circumstance.
Just south of Sungei Tenang, and east of the Rejang
country is Labun, a mountain district : whilst north of
Palembang, and south of the River Jambi, on the eastern
coast, is a flat country covered with wood and but thinly
inhabited. Now, for those who look for the wildest
* History of Sumatra, p. 383.
140 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLHLE.
varieties of the Sumatran tribes, these are the most likely
localities. Accordingly, when Marsden made his inquiries
as to the aborigines of the island, he heard of the Orang
Gugu, and the Orang* Kubu.
Of these the Orang Gugu, from the parts about Labun,
are the wildest and scarcest, being described as having
their bodies covered with hair, and as being more orang
utan than human beings.
The Orang Kubu are said to be pretty numerous, be-
longing to the other district ; i.e. the parts between the
Jambi and Palembang. The worst that is said of these
is, that they have a peculiar and unintelligible language,
and that they feed indifferently on elephants, rhinoceroses,
snakes, and monkeys.
A few small islands on the further side of Sumatra
require notice.
Enganho Island. — Natives described by Mr. Miller, in
1771, A.D., as taller and fairer than the Malays.
Poggi Islanders, or people of Si Porah and Si Biru. —
The manners of these people are those of the Battas,
except that they are more rude ; and that their custom
of disposing of the dead is different. The Poggi Islanders
deposit the corpse on a sort of stage in a place appro-
priated for the purpose, and strewing a few leaves over it,
leave it to decay. Tattooing is common.
The Pulo Batu, or Nias Islanders. — These are lighter
in complexion and smaller in stature than the Malays.
The custom of stretching the ears so as even to flap upon
the shoulders, is general here. Every district, and there
are upwards of fifty of them, is at war with its neighbour,
and the export of slaves is the consequence.
Orang Maruwi. — The small islands of Pulo Nako, close
* History of Sumatra, p. 41.
MALAYS. 141
upon the western side of Nias, also Pulo Babi, and Pulo
Baniak. — These are merely noticed for the sake of saying
that their dialect is said to be unintelligible to the Nias and
Poggi people, and that a minute distinction between them
has been recognized.
We may now consider some of the moral attributes of
the Malay race ; and in doing this there is no better a divi-
sion of the different forms of their civilization than the one
indicated and illustrated by Dr. Prichard. The two areas
which we have just considered — the peninsula of Malacca,
and the Island of Sumatra — have sufficiently shown that
there are, at least, two degrees in the civilization of their
occupants.
The civilization of the kingdom of Atchin, and of the
proper Mahometan Malays in general, is a derived civiliza-
tion, introduced by the conquerors, the traders, or the
missionaries of Mahometan Arabia ; in which we have
a literature consisting, to a great extent, of annals, an
Arabic alphabet, and no very prominent traces of any
original paganism.
At any rate we have Mahometan culture as the result of
Mahometan influence, the propagators having been Arabs.
The civilization of the Jokong, and of tribes still wilder,
like those of Korinchi country, and other mountaineer dis-
tricts both of the Peninsula and Sumatra, is the primitive
civilization — such as it is — of the unmodified Malays.
Without saying, that it is nowhere tinctured by Mahome-
tan elements, it is still an indigenous, and an inferior
culture. Hence, even without reckoning the Samangs as
Malay, we have two types of moral character, and two
types of social development — the Jokong type, or the type
of the unmodified Malay, and the proper Malay type of
the Mahometans of Malacca, Menangkabaw and Atchin.
142 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
But these two types are not the only ones. Savage as
are the Battas, and nearly as they approach in this respect
to the unmodified Malays, they exhibit signs of a second
influence. Notwithstanding their imperfect Mahometan-
ism, the influence alluded to is not Arabic. The same
influence appears in the Rejang and Lampong Sumatrans
as well. I allude to their alphabets. These are Indian in
origin.
For Sumatra, then, and Malacca, we have in different
degrees of development —
1st. The original Malay civilization, if so it can be
called.
2nd. The same as modified by Indian influences.
3rd. The same as modified by Arabic influences, en-
grafted, in some cases, perhaps, on the original Malay
rudeness ; but more frequently upon an Indian modifica-
tion of it.
This order is chronological ; i.e. the primitive stage was
(of course) earlier than the Indian, and the Indian earlier
than the Arabic.
Another principle of arrangement is the relation which
the three developments bear to each other. In Malacca
and Sumatra the Indian development is the most insig-
nificant, the Mahometan the most important.
To observe how far the ratio between these types varies
in different portions of the Malay area, is one of the chief
points in our future investigations.
Dr. Prichard would study the three forms of Malay,
development in Sumatra, in Java, and in the Philippines.
In Sumatra for the Mahometan aspect, in Java for the
Indian, and in the Philippines for the phenomena of indi-
genous growth and progress. In the main, this view is
a right one. A Philippine language, of all the Malay
MALAYS. 143
language, is the richest in inflections, perhaps also in vo-
cables ; and the Philippine civilization, as found by the
first Spanish missionaries, was on a level with that of any
other non-Mahometan or non-Indianized tribe. It was
also essentially Malay. Marsden remarks upon the great
similarity between the few facts known of the early Philip-
pine Mythology and that of the Battas. So that thus far
the Philippines are Malay ; and Malay in its most de-
veloped form; also in its more indigenous form. Still
they are not wholly Malay ; at least their development is
not wholly independent of extraneous influences. Though
there is little about them Mahometan, their alphabet is
Indian in origin.
Borneo, perhaps, is the most unmodified Malay island of
the Archipelago.
Hence, such remarks as require to be made upon the
moral characteristics of the Malays in general, as well as
the necessary notices of their manners and customs, must be
taken from these two islands, as they are supplied by them
respectively.
The primitive mythology of the Battas. — One of the few
and fragmentary accounts which we possess of any of
the primitive creeds, is the following one of the Batta
theology : —
" The inhabitants of this country have many fabulous sto-
ries, which shall be briefly mentioned. They acknowledge
three deities as rulers of the world, who are respectively
named, Batara-guru, Sori-pada, and Mangalla-bulang. The
first," say they, " bears rule in heaven, is the Father of all
mankind, and partly, under the following circumstances,
Creator of the earth ; which from the beginning of time
had been supported on the head of Naga-padoha ; but
growing weary at length, he shook his head, which occa-
144 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
sioned the earth to sink, and nothing remained in the
world excepting water. They do not pretend to a know-
ledge of the creation of this original earth and water ; hut
say that at the period when the latter covered every
thing, the chief deity, Batara-guru, had a daughter named
Puti-orla-bulan, who requested permission to descend to
these lower regions, and accordingly came down on a
white owl, accompanied by a dog ; but not being able, by
reason of the waters, to continue there, her father let fall
from heaven a lofty mountain, named Bakarra, now
situated in the Batta country, as a dwelling for his child ;
and from this mountain all other land gradually proceeded.
The Earth was once more supported on the three horns
of Naga-padoha ; and that he might never again suffer it
to fall off, Batara-guru sent his son, named, Layang-lay-
ang-mandi (literally "the dipping swallow"), to bind him
hand and foot. But to his occasionally shaking his head
they ascribe the effect of earthquakes. Puti-orla-lulan had
afterwards, during her residence on earth, three sons and
three daughters, from whom sprang the whole human race.
" The second of their deities has the rule of the air,
betwixt earth and heaven ; and the third that of the
earth ; but these two are considered as subordinate to the
first. Besides these, they have as many inferior deities as
there are sensible objects on earth, or circumstances in
human society ; of which some preside over the sea, others
over rivers, over woods, over war, and the like. They
believe, likewise, in four evil spirits, dwelling in four sepa-
rate mountains ; and whatever ill befalls them they attri-
bute to the agency of one of these demons. On such
occasions they apply to one of their cunning men, who has
recourse to his art ; and by cutting a lemon ascertains
which of these has been the author of the mischief, and by
MALAYS. 1 45
what means the evil spirit may be propitiated ; which
always proves to be the sacrificing a buffalo, hog, goat, or
whatever animal the wizard happens on that day to be
most inclined to eat. When the address is made to any of
the superior and beneficent deities for assistance, and the
priest directs an offering of a horse, cow, dog, hog, or
fowl, care must be taken that the animal to be sacrificed
is entirely white.
" They have also a vague and confused idea of the im-
mortality of the human soul, and of a future state of
happiness or misery. They say that the soul of a dying
person makes its escape through the nostrils, and is borne
away by the wind ; to heaven, if of a person who has led
a good life ; but if of an evil-doer, to a great cauldron,
where it shall be exposed to fire until such time as Batara-
guru shall judge it to have suffered punishment propor-
tioned to its sins ; and feeling compassion shall take it to
himself in heaven : that finally the time shall come when
the chains and bands of Naga-padoha shall be worn away,
and he shall once more allow the earth to sink ; that the
sun will be then no more than a cubit's distance from it,
and that the souls of those who, having lived well, shall
remain alive at the last day, shall in like manner go to
heaven, and those of the wicked be consigned to the
before-mentioned cauldron, intensely heated by the near
approach of the sun's rays, to be there tormented by a
minister of Batara-guru, named Suraya-guru, until, having
expiated their offences, they shall be thought worthy of
reception into the heavenly regions." *
Cannibalism. — Of all the tribes of the old world those of
the Oceanic stock have most generally, and, I fear, most
justly, been accused of cannibalism. For the sake, how-
* Marsden's, History of Sumatra.
L
146 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID.E.
ever, of giving the full benefit of any modified form of this
horrible habit to nations that have been improperly charged
with feeding on the flesh and blood of their fellow-crea-
tures, it must be remembered that the simple fact of human
flesh being tasted, does not constitute cannibalism — i. e.,
habitual cannibalism. It has been tasted by savage tribes
under three different influences.
1. As a mark of honour — Sir Walter Raleigh writes of
the Arawaks, that this was showing posthumous respect.
2. Don Ruy de Guzman, writes of the Charruas, that
they were not cannibals ; and what Don Ruy de Guzman
states has not been definitely contradicted. Neverthe-
less, it has not been denied that after their discoverer and
enemy, Solis, had been killed in war, his body was tasted,
if not eaten. This, however, was exceptional ; and was
done, not for the gratification of appetite, but in the way
of revenge. Charles II. disinterred the judges of his
father on the same principle ; that is, he did a thing against
his own nature and against the usage of his compatriots,
under a violent stimulus.
3. Human flesh is eaten, as food, in some cases under
incipient famine only ; in others, from absolute appetite,
and with other food to choose from. This last is true
cannibalism.
Of cannibalism so gratuitous as to come under the last
of these categories, I know of no authentic cases : that is,
I know of no case where the victim has been other than a
captured enemy ; but then I believe that the feast is one of
the certaminis gaudia.
The evidence is, in my mind, in favour of the Battas of
Sumatra being cannibals in the most gratuitous form in
which the custom exists.
Head-hunting. — No trophy is more honourable, either
MALAYS. 147
among the Battas of Sumatra, or the Dyaks of Borneo,
than a human head; the head of a conquered enemy.
These are preserved in the houses as tokens ; so that the
number of skulls is a measure of the prowess of the posses-
sor. In tribes, where this feeling becomes morbid, no
young man can marry before he has presented his future
bride with a human head, cut off by himself. Hence, for
a marriage to take place, an enemy must be either found
or made. To this subject I shall return when treating of
Borneo.
Running-a-mucJc. — A Malay (and with the exception of
the old Berserks, of the heroic ages of Scandinavia, I
know of no one else with whom the same is said to occur
in an equal degree) is capable of so far working himself into
fury, of so far yielding to some spontaneous impulse, or of
so far exciting himself by stimulants, as to become totally
regardless of what danger he exposes himself to. Hence,
he rushes forth as an infuriated animal, and attacks all
who fall in his way, until having expended his morbid fury
he falls down exhausted. This is called running-a-muck.
It is evidently, if real, a temporary form of maniacal
excitement ; but probably, so much under the control of the
will, if strongly exerted, as to be capable of being either
checked or guarded against ; a so-called uncontrollable im-
pulse, to which, if men yield in England, they are either
hanged or locked up.
Gambling. — This habit, or rather passion, is shared by the
Malays, the Indians, the Chinese, and the Indo-Chinese ;
quail-fighting and cock-fighting being the forms in which
it shows itself. A Malay will lose all his property on a
favourite bird ; and, having lost that, stake his family ;
and after the loss of wife and children, his own personal
liberty : being prepared to serve as a slave in case of losing.
14-8 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID.E.
Slavery. — Although recognised by the Mahometan reli-
gion, and part and parcel of a social system like that of
even the most advanced Malays, this, in its worst forms,
is less general than we are prepared to expect. Where
there are savage tribes in the inland parts of large dis-
tricts, and where there are small islands in the neighbour-
hood of large ones, where — in other words — the normal
condition of society is a state of war, slavery exists,
with a slave-trade superadded. In settled islands, how-
ever, like Celebes and Java, it is generally from debt, and
the consequent forfeiture of personal liberty, that the supply
arises. As such it is limited both in degree and severity.
Maritime Habits. — Nothing would be expected, a priori,
more than that tribes like the Oceanic should be essen-
tially nautical in their habits. Their insular position,' —
their wide dispersion equally indicate this. And such is
the reality. With the exception of the Negrito portion, all
the Oceanic islanders in contact with the ocean, are mari-
time in their tastes: many, indeed, of the Negritos are
so. None, however, are more so than the natives of the
Indian Archipelago ; and, of these, the proper Malays are
the most. The Phoenicians of the East is a term that has
been applied to them ; and it has been applied justly.
The primitive vessel is a prahu; a long canoe, rowed
sometimes by fifty rowers. In the pirate localities this
takes the form of junk with sails, netting, and brass
guns. Of the piracy, however, of the Indian Archipelago,
more will be said hereafter.
Narcotic stimulants and masticatories. — Chewing the
betel-nut is almost universal in some of the Malay coun-
tries ; the use of opiates and tobacco being also common.
The nut of the Areca catechu, is wrapped in the leaf
of the piper betel., the first being astringent, the second
MALAYS. 149
pungent. The addition of lime completes the preparation.
This stimulates the salivary glands, tinges the saliva red,
and discolours the teeth.
Bodily disfigurations under the idea of ornament. — Of
the well-known stories of the little pinched-up feet of
Chinese women I said nothing; waiting until I came
to a ruder stage of society, before I noticed any of those
numerous imaginary improvements upon the human form,
which are almost invariably found amongst the lower tribes
of our species. The Malay dress is becoming ; but the
Malay habit of permanently disfiguring parts of the body
under the idea of ornament, is of sufficient prominence to
take place amongst the characteristics of the branch.
a. Tattooing. — This is sometimes limited, sometimes
general : sometimes over the whole body, sometimes con-
fined to the arms only. In Africa the patterns vary with
the tribe. In certain Malay districts, an approach to
this distinction may be found ; for instance, we hear in
Borneo of some tribes that always tattoo, of others that
partially tattoo, of others that do not tattoo at all. Nay
more ; the habit of tattooing seems in some cases to go
along with certain other habits — by no means naturally
connected with it. Thus certain of the Borneo non-tat-
tooed tribes never use the Sumpitan, or blowpipe ; whilst
others are tattooed, and use it. So at least Sir J. Brooke
was informed ; although I think the careful peruser of his
journal will find that the coincidence is not always complete.
5. Depilation. — Malay, but continental as well. — Depila-
tion is effected either by quick-lime or tweezers. Generally,
I believe, the parts of the body which are meant to be
kept smooth are rubbed with quick-lime ; and the isolated
hairs that afterwards appear, are plucked out carefully
by tweezers in detail.
150 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID^E.
c. Filing the teeth, dyeing the teeth. — A Malay habit.
There are not less than three varieties of this operation.
1. Sometimes the enamel, and no more, is filed off.
This enables the tooth to receive and retain its appropriate
dye.
2. Sometimes the teeth are merely pointed.
3. Sometimes they are filed down to the gums. This is
the case with many of the Sumatran women of Lampong.*
It may be doubted whether this last be wholly due to
the process of filing down.
Dyeing may follow filing, or not, as the case may be.
In Sumatra, where a jetty blackness is aimed at, the em-
pyreumatic oil of the cocoa-nut is used. Even, however, if
no dyeing follow, the teeth will become black from the
simple filing, if the chewing of the betel-nut be habitual.
d. Distension of the ears. — Many of the tribes that file their
teeth, also distend their ears. Both are Malay habits.
In some parts of Sumatra, when the child is young, the
ear is bored, and rings are put in. Here the process stops
in England, and the civilized world. In other parts,
however, the rings are weighted, so as to pull down the
lobe ; or ornaments, gradually increased in diameter, are
inserted ; so that the perforation becomes enlarged.
Simple perforation may extend to a mere multiplication
of the holes of the ear. In Borneo, the Sakarran tribes
wear more earrings than one, and are distinguished accord-
ingly ; " when you meet a man with many rings distrust
him " being one of their cautions. Mr. Brooke met a
Sakarran with twelve rings in his ear.
e. Growth of the nails. — In Borneo, the right thumb-nail
is encouraged to grow to a great length. So it is in parts
of the Philippines.
* History of Sumatra, p. 53.
MALAYS. 151
Such are some of the more prominent Malay customs,
others will present themselves, as other islands come
under notice.
Was Sumatra or Malacca the original country of the
Malays? — The primd facie is in favour of the island
having been peopled from the continent.
The traditions, perhaps, indeed, the histories of the
Mahometan Malays complicate this view. According to
the earliest accounts, Malacca and Singhapura were built
by settlers from Menangkabaw. The two commonest
accounts of the Mahometan Malaccan settlement, although
disagreeing in certain details, agree in this. In one sense
then, at least, Sumatra is probably the parent state : it is
probably the quarter from which the more civilized Malays
of the coast invaded Malacca ; and, if so, is also the earlier
civilized locality. But this may be the case, without
invalidating the primd facie evidence in favour of the con-
tinent being the birthplace of the stock. The Malays of
the Jokong type have never been derived from Sumatra ;
on the contrary, it is very probable that the earliest
Sumatrans were offsets from Malacca.
At any rate, the Malaccan origin of the earlier Su-
matrans, and the Sumatran origin of the later Malaccans,
are perfectly compatible doctrines.
As to the presumed date of the Malaccan settlements,
it has already been placed in the thirteenth century.
Whether this be an historical fact or not, it is certain
that when Marco Polo, anterior to any Portuguese voy-
ager, visited Sumatra, and described it under the name
of Java Minor, the kingdom of Atchin, at least, was
powerful, flourishing, and Mahometan.
152 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID.E.
JAVA,
Languages. — 1. Sunda, spoken by one tenth of the population, and limited to
the western side of the island.
2. Javan proper, falling into
a. The Archaic dialect.
I. The Court dialect.
c. The popular dialect.
Culture of Indian origin ; which, after attaining its full development, was
replaced by Mahometanism, is the leading fact in the ethnography of Java.
Or — changing the expression — of the three forms of development the proper
Malay, the Indian, and the Arabic, it is the second which is paramount in Java.
The details of its displacement by Mahometanism are historical rather than
ethnological. Neither are they well ascertained even as historical facts. The
date, however, is some part of the fifteenth century.
So exclusively have the Indian elements of the Javanese
history and archaeology riveted the attention of scholars,
that the Mahometan influence on one side, and the remains
of the primitive Malay development, have been thrown
in the back ground.
The Indian elements still extant, are referable to the
three following heads. 1. Language. 2. Literature. 3. Art.
1 . Language. — Notice has been taken of the existence in
Java of a court dialect, the Bhasa Krama, or BJiasa BTiilem.
This, perhaps, is a phenomenon more redolent of Hindo-
stan, than of the proper Malay kingdoms. The Bhasa
krama, however, is by no means the pre-eminently Indian -
ized portion of the Javanese language. The Archaic
Javanese is the famous Kawi language. The Kawi lan-
guage was described by Sir Stamford Baffles as Sanskrit,
that had taken a Javanese form in respect to its gram-
mar ; and it is from the notices of Raffles and Crawford
that the details of the Kawi language were first made
known. This view has been reversed by Wilhelm von
Humboldt. His great work on the Kawi language sup-
plies reasons for considering the Kawi, as ancient Java-
nese, loaded with Sanskrit vocables.
JAVA. 153
2. Literature — The Kawi language, an Indianized archaic,
or poetical dialect, is the vehicle for that portion of the
older Javanese literature which is most based upon San-
skrit models. The great poem in Kawi is the Bhrata
Yuddha, an imitation of the Mahabharata. The Javanese
annals, whether in Kawi, or Javan, in all probability
deserve the low opinion that Mr. Crawford entertains of
them ; as there is no department in literature where a
Sanskrit model would be more out of place, than for
historical composition.
3. Remains of ancient art. — Palaces, tombs, images of
Hindu gods, are all numerous in Java, and all evidence
of a previous Hinduism. Some of the inscriptions are not
only Kawi, but Sanskrit.
To these may be added, the still living witnesses to the
original Hindu worship. The Bedui of Bantam, and the
people of the Teng'ger mountains still retain it, although
in a corrupted form. Of the latter, the following is a
description taken from Sir S. Raffles' History of Java.
" To the eastward of Surabaya, and on the range of hills
connected with Gunung Dasar, and lying partly in the
district of Pasuruan, and partly in that of Probolingo,
known by the name of the Teng'ger mountain, we find the
remnant of a people still following the Hindu worship, who
merit attention, not only on account of their being (if we
except the Bedui of Bantam) the sole depositaries of the
rites and doctrines of that religion existing at this day on
Java, but as exhibiting an interesting singularity and sim-
plicity of character.
" These people occupy about forty villages, scattered
along this range of hills, in the neighbourhood of what is
termed the Sandy Sea. The site of their villages, as well
as the construction of their houses, is peculiar, and differ
154 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID.E.
entirely from what is elsewhere observed on Java. They
are not shaded by trees but built on spacious open terraces,
rising one above the other, each house occupying a ter-
race, and being in length from thirty to seventy, and even
eighty feet. The door is invariably in one corner, at the
end of the building, opposite to that in which the fire-place
is built. The building appears to be constructed with the
ordinary roof, having along the front an enclosed veranda
or gallery, about eight feet broad. The fire-place is built
of brick, and is so highly venerated that it is considered a
sacrilege for any stranger to touch it. Across the upper
part of the building rafters are run, so as to form a kind
of attic story, in which are deposited the most valuable
property and implements of husbandry.
" The head of the village takes the title of Peting'gi, as
in the low-lands, and is generally assisted by a Kabdyan,
both elected by the people from their own village. There
are four priests who are here termed Dakuns (a term else-
where only applied to doctors and mid wives), having
charge of the state records and the sacred books.
" These Dukwns, who are in general intelligent men, can
give no account of the era when they were first established
on these hills ; they can produce no traditional history of
their origin, whence they came, or who entrusted them
with the sacred books, to the faith contained in which they
still adhere. These, they concur in stating, were handed
down to them by their fathers, to whose hereditary office
of preserving them they have succeeded. The sole duty
required of them is again to hand them down in safety to
their children, and to perform the puja (praisegiving), ac-
cording to the directions they contain. These records con-
sist of three compositions, written on the lontar-leaf, detail-
ing the origin of the world, disclosing the attributes of the
JAVA. 155
Deity, and prescribing the forms of worship to be observed
on different occasions. When a woman is delivered of her
first child, the DuJcun takes a leaf of the alang grass,
and scraping the skin of the hands of the mother and her
infant, as well as the ground, pronounces a short benediction.
" When a marriage is agreed upon, the bride and bride-
groom being brought before the Dukun within the house,
in the first place bow with respect towards the south, then
to the fire-place, then to the earth, and lastly, on looking
up to the upper story of the house where the implements
of husbandry are placed. The parties then, submissively
bowing to the DuJcun, he repeats a prayer, commencing
with the words, ' Hong ! kendaga Brama ang-gas siwang^ga
ana ma siwdha sangyang g^ni sira hang,"1 &c. ; while the
bride washes the feet of the bridegroom. At the conclu-
sion of this ceremony, the friends and family of the parties
make presents to each of krises, buffaloes, implements of
husbandry, &c. ; in return for which the bride and bride-
groom respectfully present them with betel-leaf.
"At the marriage-feast which ensues, the Dukun repeats
two puja. The marriage is not, however, consummated
till the fifth day after the above ceremony. This interval
between the solemnities and the consummation of mar-
riage is termed by them undang mdntu ; and is in some
cases still observed by the Javans in other parts of the
island, under the name, unduh mdntu.
" At the interment of an inhabitant of Teng^ger, the
corpse is lowered into the grave with the head placed to-
wards the south (contrary to the direction observed by the
Mahometans), and is guarded from the immediate contact
of the earth by a covering of bambus and planks. When
the grave is closed, two posts are planted over the body :
one erected perpendicularly on the breast, the other on the
156 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID.E.
lower part of the belly ; and between them is placed a
hollowed bambu in an inverted position, into which, during
seven successive days, they daily pour a vessel of pure
water, laying beside the bambu two dishes, also daily
replenished with eatables. At the expiration of the
seventh day, the feast of the dead is announced, and the
relations and friends of the deceased assemble to be pre-
sent at the ceremony, and to partake of entertainments
conducted in the following manner :
"A figure of about half a cubit high, representing the
human form, made of leaves and ornamented with varie-
gated flowers, is prepared and placed in a conspicuous
situation, supported round the body by the clothes of the
deceased. The Dukun then places in front of the garland
an incense-pot with burning ashes, together with a vessel
containing water, and repeats the two puja to fire and
water ; the former commencing with, ' Hong ! Ken-
ddga Brdma gangsi wang^ga ya nama siwdha" &c. ; the
latter with, " Hong ! hong gang"ga mdha tirta rdta mejil
saking hdti, &rc. ; burning dupa, or incense, at stated
periods during the former ; and occasionally sprinkling the
water over the feast during the repetition of the latter.
" The clothes of the deceased are then divided among the
relatives and friends ; the garland is burned ; another
puja, commencing with, " Hong ! dwigna mastuna ma,
sidam, hong ! ardning" &c., is repeated ; while the re-
mains of the sacred water are sprinkled over the feast.
The parties now sit down to the enjoyment of it, invoking
a blessing from the Almighty on themselves, their houses,
and their lands. No more solemnities are observed till
the expiration of a thousand days ; when, if the memory
of the deceased is beloved and cherished, the ceremony and
feast are repeated ; if otherwise, no further notice is taken
JAVA. 157
of him : and having thus obtained what the Romans call
his justa, he is allowed to be forgotten.
" Being questioned regarding the tenets of their religion,
they replied that they believed in a Dewa, who was all-
powerful ; that the name by which the Dewa was desig-
nated was Bumi Truka Sdng'ydng Dewdta Bdtur, and
that the particulars of their worship were contained in a
book called Pdngldwu, which they presented to me.
" On being questioned regarding the adat against adul-
tery, theft, and other crimes, their reply was unanimous and
ready — that crimes of this kind were unknown to them,
and that consequently no punishment was fixed, either by
law or custom ; that if a man did wrong, the head of the
village chid him for it, the reproach of which was always
sufficient punishment for a man of Teng"ger. This account
of their moral character is fully confirmed by the Regents
of the districts, under whose authority they are placed, and
also by the residents. They, in fact, seem to be almost
without crime, and are universally peaceable, orderly,
honest, industrious, and happy. They are unacquainted
with the vice of gambling and the use of opium.
"The aggregate population is about twelve hundred
souls ; and they occupy, without exception, the most beau-
tifully rich and romantic spots on Java ; a region in which
the thermometer is frequently as low as forty-two. The
summits and slopes of the hills are covered with Alpine
firs, and plants common to an European climate flourish in
luxuriance.
" Their language does not differ much from the Javan
of the present day, though more gutturally pronounced.
Upon a comparison of about a hundred words with the
Javan vernacular two only were found to differ. They
do not marry or intermix with the people of the low-
158 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID^E.
lands, priding themselves on their independence and purity
in this respect."
BALI.
As in Java, the people of Bali took a civilization from
India. Unlike the Javanese, they have retained it to the
present day.
SUMBAWA, ENDE', OMBAY.
At Bali and Java, the type is unequivocally Malay.
At Timor it is Malay also, but altered. The Timorians
are considerably darker than the Javanese ; their features
are coarser, their lips are sometimes thick, and their
hair often frizzy. In the islands between, occur nume-
rous transitional forms ; both in feature and language.
In respect to this last, the islands at the head of this sec-
tion afford three remarkable vocabularies. 1. The Timbora,
from a district of Sumbawa ; 2. The Mangarei, from a part
of End6, or Floris ; 3. The Ombay, from the island so
called ; the inhabitants of which are described by Arago as
black cannibals with flattened noses and thickened lips.
In each of these vocabularies, Malay words form the
greater proportion. In each of them, however, are also
found Australian vocables.
The following, from the three very short vocabularies of
these three languages, are what I published in the Appen-
dix to Mr. Jukes' Voyage of the Fly.
1 . Arm =r ibarana, Ombay ; porene, Pine Gorine dialect
of Australia.
2. Hand = ouine, Ombay ; hingue, New Caledonia.
3. Nose = imouni, Ombay ; maninya, mandeg, man-
deinne, New Caledonia ; mena, Van Diemen's Land,
western dialect : mini, Mangerei : meoun, muidge, mugui,
Macquarie Harbour.
BALI — SUMBAWA, ENDE, OMBAY. 159
4. Head ~ imocila, Ombay; moos ( = hair), Darnley
Island ; moochi ( = hair), Massied ; immoos ( = beard),
Darnley Islands ; eeta moochi, ( = beard) Massied.
5. Knee = icici-bou&a, Ombay; bow&a, boulkay ( = fore-
finger), Darnley Islands.
6. Leg rz irafca, Ombay ; horag-nata, Jhongworong
dialect of the Australian.
7. Bosom = ami, Ombay ; naem, Darnley Island.
8. Thigh =-itena, Ombay; tinna-mooJc ( = foot), Wiou-
tro dialect of Australian. The root, tin, is very general
throughout Australia in the sense of foot.
9. Belly = te-Jcap-ana, Ombay; coopoi ( = navel),
Darnley Island.
10. Stars — ipi-berre, Mangarei ; lering, lirrong,
Sydney.
11. Hand — tanaraga, Mangarei; taintit, Timbora ;
tamira, Sydney.
1 2. Head =. jahe, Mangarei ; chow, King George's
Sound.
1 3. Stars — kingkong, Timboro ; chindy, King George's
Sound, Australia.
14. Moon r= mang^ong, Timbora; meuc, King George's
Sound.
15. S\m — ingkong, Timbora; coing, Sydney.
1 6. Blood = Jcero, Timbora ; gnoorong, Cowagary dialect
of Australia.
1 7. Head =. Jcokore, Timbora : gogorrah, Cowagary.
18. Fish — appi, Mangarei ; wapi, Darnley Island.
It is considered, that this list, short as it, is calculated
to contract the broad line of demarcation, implied in the
following extract from Marsden : —
" We have rarely met with any Negrito language, in
which many corrupt Polynesian words might not be
160 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID.E.
detected. In those of New Holland or Australia, such a
mixture is not found. Among them no foreign terms
that connect them with the languages, even of other Papua
or Negrito countries, can be discovered ; with regard to
the physical qualities of the natives, it is nearly super-
fluous to state, that they are Negritos of the most decided
class."
TIMOR.
The multiplicity of languages, or dialects, spoken on
the island Timor, has been noticed by most voyagers.
Some have put the mutually unintelligible forms of
speech as high as thirty. Unfortunately the details of
this variety are not known. Such Timor vocabularies as
we possess, represent the language of Koepang ; the
locality where the contact with the trading world both
of the East and West, is greatest, i. e., with the Dutch
and with the Malays. This makes the language Malay —
though less Malay than the Malay of Sumatra, Celebes,
and Borneo ; the points wherein it differs being, fre-
quently, points wherein it agrees with the Bima, Savu,
and Elide, and other intermediate islands. Nevertheless,
it is highly probable that the Timor of Koepang no more
exactly represents the languages of some of the wilder
mountaineers of the interior, than the Malay of Kedah
exactly represents the languages of the Samang or Jokong.
When the wilder inhabitants are represented at all,
they are represented as approaching the character of the
Negro.
On the other hand some are fairer than the generality.
Both these are phenomena that we have either seen before,
or shall see in the sequel — in the Samang of Malacca, and
the Dyaks of Borneo, as well as in Durville's Arafuras
of Celebes.
TIMOR LAUT. 161
In one particular village, near the north-eastern ex-
tremity, Mr. Earle found red hair, a specimen of which
was in the possession of Dr. Prichard. In noting this,
we must also note the habit of colouring the hair, which
will be shown in the sequel to be a Papua custom.
Curly hair also was met with by the same observer ;
and so was coarse bushy hair ; those tribes where it was
found being the tribes that suffered from the oppression of
the others, and which supplied them with slaves.
TIMOR LAUT.
From an English sailor who lived sometime in Timor
Laut as a prisoner and a slave, I had the opportunity of
collecting a few facts concerning Timor Laut, or Timor
of the Sea. The numerals, which was all he knew of the
language, were Malay. The people he described as dark,
but not so dark as some of the slaves, whom they were
in the habit of either purchasing or stealing. He knew
of no second race, nor of any second language in the
island.
THE SERWATTY AND KI ISLANDS.
For the Serwatty and Ki Islands, the best, indeed,
nearly the only information, is to be collected from the
voyage of the Durga, and from subsequent observations
by Mr. Earle, the translator of the Voyage, and himself an
independent investigator. Here, with one exception, the
personal appearance was that of the Javanese and Bugis.
The language throughout, which was particularly in-
vestigated, is Oceanic, i.e., approaching the Malay or
the Polynesian. The Kissa dialect, the one best known
in detail, exhibited some letter-changes, which will be
found frequent in the Polynesian, viz., h for s, k for #, w
for 5, along with the ejection of the final ng.
162 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
ENGLISH. KISSA. BUGIS.
Stone wahku bahtu.
Heavy werek beret.
Heart akin ati.
Dead maki mati.
Slave ahka a ta
Yam ubi uwi
Feather huhu bulu
Milk huhu susu.
Hard kereh keres.*
MOA.
Moa is one of the Serwatty group ; and it forms the
exception just noticed. In Moa, and in Moa alone, did
Mr. Earle find the coarse bushy hair, the dark com-
plexion, and the muddy sclerotica that suggested the
idea of a Papua -f- intermixture. The Moa people are
oppressed and kidnapped by the natives of the neigh-
bouring island of Letti.
Subsequent enquiry showed that they had migrated
from the south side of Timor.
THE ARRU ISLES.
Like the last, the Arru Isles are known to us, from the
voyage of the Durga, and Mr. Earless notices. He
especially excepts them from the category of the Ki and
Serwatty groups. In the Arru Islands, he recognised
Papua characters, and refers them to Papua intermix-
ture. In the southern part of the group this is most
conspicuous.
Timor, and the Arru Islands bring us to Australia,
and New Guinea, parts of Kelsenonesia, or true Negrito
areas. How far the transition from the Oceanic tribes
of the Protonesian to the Oceanic tribes of the Negrito
type, both in the way of language and physical confor-
* Prichard, vol. v. -f- A division of the Kelaenonesians.
BORNEO. 1 63
mation, is abrupt or gradual, is to be studied in the islands
last enumerated. At present we will return to Java,
and follow the Malay population in a different direction,
i.e. from south to north, rather than from east to west.
BORNEO.
Of all the portions of the Indian Archipelago, the
vast island of Borneo, the greatest in the world after Aus-
tralia, and lying under the Equator, presents us with the
Malay development on the largest scale.
In the exceeding paucity of the elements of Indian
culture it stands in remarkable opposition to Java, and
even to Celebes and the Philippines, whilst the Maho-
metan influences are extended but little beyond the large
towns and the coast. Hence the central parts are Malay
in the most unmodified form ; even as the Batta districts
of Sumatra are Malay.
Our knowledge, however, has by no means been propor-
tionate to the number and variety of facts capable of being-
elicited. Indeed, with the exception of New Guinea,
Central Africa, and parts of South America, Borneo has
been, to the ethnologist, the darkest area in the world.
That there were Mahometan Malays in the towns, that
there were pirates on the coast, and that there were Dyaks
in the interior has, until lately, been the sum of our
information. As far as it goes this is true. In addition,
however, there has been (and continues to be) a belief in
the existence of Blacks in the more inaccessible parts of
the mountains, especially the Kenebalow range.
As to the vocabularies, scanty as they were (and are),
they have always been sufficient to prove a Malay origin,
for such tribes as they represented. Whether, however,
the population was homogeneous throughout, or whether
M 2
164 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID^E.
there was a second (so-called) race, analogous to the
Samangs of Malacca was uncertain.
The publication of the observations of the Rajah of
Sarawak, and of his visitors, has dispelled much darkness.
Still the light is imperfect ; or, rather, it is partial. What
we now know we know in detail, and on authoritative
evidence ; our knowledge being, chiefly, for the north-
western coast, from Pontianak, on the Equator, to the
parts round the Kenebalow mountain on the northern
extremity of the island.
I shall just give so much of Sir J. Brooke's observations
as bear upon those points wherein the ethnology of Borneo
either explains or differs from that of Sumatra.
The Borneo equivalents to the Battas of Sumatra are
the Dyaks ; a term applied by the Mahometan Malays to
the non-Mahometan portion of the population. The utter
absence of an alphabet is the first point of distinction.
The comparative absence of a Hindoo mythology is the
second. Fragmentary and distorted as is the Hindu
Pantheon in Sumatra, it has had still less influence in
Borneo. However, it exists in the terms Jowata and
Battara (at least), and in certain real elements of the
Dyak creed as well. These names are connected with the
cosmogony — when Jowata took the earth in both hands,
and the right handful became man, the left, woman.
Below the earth is Sabyan ; where the houses are fitted up
with moskito curtains, and where there are other creature-
comforts besides. Euhemeristic elements are superadded.
The memory of great chieftains is held in superstitious
reverence ; Beadum being one of them. Numerous de-
tails in the way of superstitions, regarding charms and
omens, and the ceremonies attendant upon births, deaths,
and marriages, fill up the picture of the paganism of
BORNEO. 1 65
Borneo. I am not aware, however, that any of them,
curious as they are, are of sufficient importance to indicate
either new ethnological affinities in respect to the tribes
that adopt them, or to induce us to refine upon old ones.
Indeed, the customs, as between tribe and tribe, are far
from being uniform ; as, for instance, in regard to the
burial of the dead. Some burn the corpse, but without
any ceremonies. Others place it in a light coffin, sus-
pended on the bough of a tree, and so leave it. In some
cases the forms are few or none. In others they are
preeminently elaborate.
As a mark of distinction between different tribes, two
customs take a prominent place : the habit of tattooing,
and the use of the sumpitan.
The first is either general, or limited to certain parts of
the body. In some tribes it is not adopted at all.
The second is a pipe, about five feet long ; with an
arrow made of wood; thin, light, sharp-pointed, and
dipped in the poison of the upas-tree. As this is fuga-
cious, the points are generally dipped afresh when wanted.
At least five arrows can be discharged in the time required
for loading and firing a musket. For about twenty yards
the aim is so true, that no two arrows shot at the same
mark will be above an inch or two apart. The utmost
range is one hundred yards. The poison is virulent, but
not deadly.
In many cases the use of the sumpitan (which is by no
means universal) and the habit of tattooing go together.
Numerous other differentiae, equally important (or unim-
portant), may be collected from any of the recent works
on Borneo.
Head-hunting. — This is one of the Malay habits, which
is better studied in Borneo than elsewhere. The earliest
166 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
writers describe the Dyaks as being cannibals, and some-
thing more ; as being hunters of their kind, not merely for
the sake of an unnatural feast, but simply for the sake of
collecting heads as articles of virtu. Something of this
sort, in the way of gratuitous bloodshed, we have seen in
Sumatra, and something of the sort we shall find in the
Philippines, and (I fear) elsewhere also.
In Borneo it is one of the essential elements of court-
ship. Before a youth can marry he must lay at the feet
of his bride elect, the head of some one belonging to
another tribe, killed by himself. According, then, to
theory, every marriage involves a murder. I believe, how-
ever, that the practice is less general than the theory
demands. Still a morbid passion for the possession of
human heads is a trait of the Dyak character. Skulls are
the commonest ornaments of a Dyak house, and the
possession of them the best prima facie evidence of manly
courage.
There is, then, a continual cause of bloodshed on land,
and there is piracy by sea ; the northern parts of Borneo,
and the Sulu Archipelago, being the chief seats of the
latter. Indeed the corsairs that give a dangerous cha-
racter to the Indian Archipelago are almost all from these
parts.
These two forms of warfare, the chronic state of hos-
tility for the parts inland, and the system of robbery on
the high seas, supply some of the elements of an expla-
nation of the system just noticed ; to which may be added
the division of the population into a multiplicity of distinct
tribes. Still, it is so good a rule to receive with scepticism
all accounts that violate the common feelings of human
nature, that I allow myself to believe that causes, as yet
imperfectly understood, modify and diminish a practice so
BORNEO. 167
horrible as the one in question. That it should be so
general as the theory demands is incompatible with the
proportions between the male and female population, which
are much the same in Borneo as elsewhere. So it is, also,
with the express statement of Sir J. Brooke, who says, that
the passion for heads has much diminished amongst certain
of the Sarawak tribes. In one case, an offer of some was
refused ; the reason alleged being that it would revive
fresh sorrows. The parties who thus declined, gave a
favourable account of some of the customs by which the
horrors of a Dyak war were abated : —
" If one tribe claimed a debt of another, it was always
demanded, and the claim discussed. If payment was
refused, the claimants departed, telling the others to listen
to their birds, as they might expect an attack. Even
after this, it was often the case, that a tribe friendly to
each mediated between them, and endeavoured to make a
settlement of their contending claims. If they failed, the
tribes were then at war. Recently, however, Parimban
has attacked without due notice, and often by treachery,
and the Sow Dyaks, as well as the Singe", practise the
same treachery. The old custom likewise was, that no
house should be set on fire, no paddy destroyed, and that
a naked woman could not be killed, nor a woman with
child. These laudable and praiseworthy customs have
fallen into disuse, yet they give a pleasing picture of Dyak
character, and relieve, by a touch of humanity, the other-
wise barbarous nature of their warfare.
" Babukid, lubukkid, or mode of defiance. — I have before
mentioned this practice of defiance, and I since find it is
appealed to as a final judgment in disputes about property,
and usually occurs in families when the right to land and
fruit-trees comes to be discussed. Each party then sallies
168 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIDJE.
forth in search of a head ; if one only succeed, his claim is
acknowledged ; if both succeed, the property continues
common to both. It is on these occasions that the Dyaks
are dangerous ; and perhaps an European, whose inhe-
ritance depended on the issue, would not be very scrupu-
lous as to the means of success. It must be understood,
however, that the individuals do not go alone, but a party
accompanies each, or they may send a party without being
present. The loss of life is not heavy from this cause, and
it is chiefly resorted to by the Singe and Sows, and is
about as rational as our trials by combat."
This babukid must be a check of a permanent sort.
Houses. — With certain of the Dyak tribes the houses
are not huts, nor yet mere dwelling-houses of ordinary
dimensions. They hold from one hundred to two hundred
persons each ; and are raised above the ground on piles.
This form of domestic architecture is important in itself;
and it is also important, because it appears again in New
Guinea, and has already been found in Java.
The conclusion which we come to from our present
data in respect to Borneo is, that the whole population is
Malay, in the way that the Sumatran population is Malay ;
i.e. within comparatively narrow limits.
a. There is no tribe so different from the Mahometan
Malays as the Samang are from the Malays of Malacca.
b. Still less is there any representative of a lower form
of humanity ; such as the fabulous Orang Gugu and Orang
Cubu of Sumatra are said to be ; although, as in Su-
matra, there are reports of the kind.
The tribes described by Mr. Brooke are chiefly the
Lundu, Sakarran, the Sarebas, the Suntah, Sow, Sibnow,
Meri, Millanow, and Kayan ; also the Bajow, or Sea-Gip-
sies, who live as wanderers (pilots or pirates, as the case
CELEBES. 169
may be) on the ocean, and are found on Borneo, the Sulu
islands, Celebes, and elsewhere.
The vocabularies given by Sir J. Brooke are — 1. the
Suntah ; 2. Sow; 3. Sibnow ; 4. Sakarran; 5. Meri;
6. Millanow ; 7. Malo ; 8. Kayan. These last are ex-
tended very nearly to the centre of the island.
In the way of intermixture, the nations that are most in
contact with the Borneans, especially the Mahometan
Malays, are the Arabs and Chinese.
CELEBES.
Languages or dialects. — a. The Bugis.* b. The Macassar. c. The Man-
dhar. d. The Harafura of Durville (Qu. the Turaja of Crawfurd and Raffles).
Alphabet of 'the Bugis. — Like, but probably formed independently of the Tagala
alphabet of the Philippines ; Sanskrit in origin.
Although the Mandhar and Macassar languages, or
dialects, are less developed as the instruments of literature
than the Bugis, and although the area over which they are
spoken is less, whilst their commercial importance is incon-
siderable, there is no reason to believe that they represent
a civilization different in kind from that of the Bugis.
This is not the case with the fourth dialect. I have
called it the Harafura of Durville, because the only voca-
bulary known to me has been collected by that voyager.
It is Malay, as truly as the Dyak of Borneo is Malay ;
whilst those who speak it, although called Harafuras, are
Dyaks in frame and complexion. They were seen by
Durville; and especially described as being fairer in
complexion than the other inhabitants of the island. I
have little doubt but that the Harafuras of Durville are the
Turajas of Crawfurd and Raffles.
The Bugis, however, represent the learning, and the
commercial activity of Celebes.
* The g- pronounced as in get.
170 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
At present they are Mahometans. In A.D. 1504, when
they were visited by the Portuguese, they were beginning
to be so ; their missionaries being the Mahometans of
Sumatra and Malacca, and the religion, which was dis-
placed, being Hinduism.
How far this came direct from India, or how far it came
by way of Java, is uncertain. The results were the same
for the two islands — in kind, but not in degree. An
alphabet, and a literature, indicative of Indian influ-
ence, are common to both Java and Celebes. In the first
island, however, they are the more developed. Inscrip-
tions have hitherto been found in Java alone. The re-
mains of temples have been attributed to Celebes, but
they have not been described, and they have not been seen
by Europeans.
The safe inference is, that the Hindu civilization ex-
tended itself somewhat later to Celebes than it did to Java ;
and that it took root less generally.
The Bugis are essentially maritime and commercial ;
and their name in the latter department is a good one ;
they being active, enterprising, and men who consider
themselves bound by what they say.
Bugis approach to a constitutional government. — I am
following, implicitly, both the facts and the deductions of
Sir J. Brooke, who writes from personal knowledge of the
island of Celebes, which he visited from his Rajahship of
Sarawak, in giving prominence to what may be considered
the nearest approach to a constitution, that is to be found
in any Malay area.
One of the kingdoms into which the southern limb of
Celebes is divided is the kingdom of Wajo. Beginning
with the lowest ranks, the so-called constitution of Wajo
is as follows : —
CELEBES. 171
Servitude. — This is of a mild form, and of the domestic
kind. Although so extensive in respect to its numerical
dimensions, as for one freeman to have, sometimes, up-
wards of fifty slaves, an export or import trade is unknown.
Debt creates the usual supply; since by incurring an
amount which he cannot discharge by means of his pro-
perty, the debtor forfeits his personal freedom. As this
forfeiture extends to his family, bondsmanship becomes
hereditary.
Freeman not of noble birth. — The lowest sort of political
power exercised by a freeman not of noble birth, seems to
be the power of holding meetings, where opinions may be
stated, but where resolutions can not be passed. The
practical bearing of this seems to be, that the higher
magistrates have a means of knowing the feelings of the
population at large upon any particular measure. Such
meetings are convened by the special representatives of
the people, i.e. of the not noble portion of the state —
the Pangawas.
The Pangawas. — These are rude analogues of the
tribunes of the Roman constitution. They are elected by
the people. They, alone, can convene certain councils.
They have a veto upon the appointment of the aru matoah,
or sovereign magistrate. The details as to the state of
the towns and villages, and the number of the population is
in their hands. No summons to military service is valid
without their consent. The number of pangawas is three.
The Council of Forty. — A council of forty arangs, or
nobles of .inferior rank, is appealed to in cases of import-
ance and difficulty by the —
Six hereditary Rajahs. — Of these, three are civil, and
three military. With these rests the election of the —
Aru Matoah, or chief magistrate.
172 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
Reversing the view here taken, and looking at the Wajo
constitution from its highest elements downwards, the form
becomes as follows : —
Aru Matoah.
The six Rajahs, of which the Aru Beting is chief.
Council of Forty.
Three Pangawas.
General Council, or Meeting.
I must confess, that in the details both of the Wajo and
Boni Constitutions, as given by Sir J. Brooke, I find several
difficulties and inconsistencies. I presume, however, that
each is accurate in the main points, and also that it is (so
to say) more of a constitution than could easily be found
in any Malay parts elsewhere.
The Boni Constitution, just mentioned, is that of
another of the Bugis kingdoms. It is the same in principle
as that of Wajo, but less attended to in practice.
I agree, too, in the comparison between these constitu-
tions and those forms of European feudalism wherein the
right of free citizens first began to be respected. I am also
well prepared to believe that, however much the written
constitution may have in it the elements of self-developed
political freedom, the details of its working may be unsatis-
factory ; as we are especially informed is the case. When
I find that each rajah is said to possess the power of life and
death over his retainers, I find a statement that requires
much explanation before it can be made compatible with the
asserted freedom of the people at large. So also I ob-
serve, that the office as pangawa is, practically, hereditary
— a great limitation to a true tribunicial authority.
An element of confusion, rather than a restraint upon
individual freedom, is to be found in the principle upon
which the aru matoah is elected. The six rajahs must be
CELEBES. 1 73
unanimous. Failing this, one of them, the aru beting,
with the support of the pangawas, and the council of
forty, may nominate. Furthermore, during the vacancy,
the aru beting acts as the locum tenens, but only within
certain limits. He is no aru matoah in the eyes of the
other Bugis kingdoms, so that he is no aru matoah for any
matters of what may be called foreign policy.
As unanimity is rare, and as the aru beting has an
interest in keeping the tenure of supreme power in abey-
ance, disputed elections continually interfere with the
peace of the Bugis states; from whence it follows, as a
necessary consequence, that the powers of the six here-
ditary rajahs increase at the expense of the powers of the
aru matoah ; a process by which the government becomes
a close oligarchy, rather than an elective monarchy.
As a foundation for a constitution like the preceding,
tenacity of the purity of blood must, necessarily, be a
leading element. It exists in Celebes to the fullest
extent. Though men may marry in a caste below the one
they belong to, women are limited to their own. The
practice here is more equalizing than the rule.
In Bugis polygamy, separate wives have separate estab-
lishments, and years may elapse without husband or wife
having any communication with one another. Still, unless
a divorce — procurable on light grounds — be effected, the
marriage continues.
To the highest offices of the state, even to that of aru
matoah, women are eligible ; so much so that, at the
present moment, four out of six of the hereditary rajahs
are females.
*****
" The strangest custom I have observed (i.e. among the
Bugis) is, that some men dress like women, and some
174 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
women like men ; not occasionally, but all their lives,
devoting themselves to the occupations and pursuits of
their adopted sex. In the case of males, it seems that the
parents of a boy, upon perceiving in him certain pecu-
liarities of habit and appearance, are induced thereby to
present him to one of the rajahs, by whom he is received.
These youths acquire much influence over their masters.
It would appear, however, from all I could learn, that the
practice leads among the Bugis to none of those vices that
constitute the opprobrium of Western Europe." i{
By allowing ourselves to argue from the sanctity attri-
buted by many ancient nations (e.g. the Greeks and
Germans) to the female character, and by comparing the
form which this strange custom takes in Borneo, where it
is connected with the sacerdotal office, we arrive at a
plausible explanation. Among the Sea Dyaks " their
doctor, or magician, or both combined, is a man set apart
for that office, who is thereafter considered as a woman.
She, or he, marries a husband, adopts children, dresses as a
female, and lives amongst the women, performing the
domestic duties peculiar to the sex. The principal occu-
pation is curing people by divers charms, driving away
the devil and evil spirits. It must be allowed that the
whole constitution of this office is an example of gross
superstition ; but the ceremonies attendant on it are in
themselves inoffensive. A branch of a tree is fixed on the
house ; around it white cloth is wrapped ; and near this
spot the spathe of the betel or areca tree is placed (the
spathe being indispensable); then the people assemble,
and with unseemly noises rattling shells and beating
gongs proclaim their joy and satisfaction.
" The office itself is called ' Manang;' and no particular
* Rajah Brooke's Journal, vol. i. p. 83.
THE MOLUCCAS. 175
age is specified, the ' Manang1 being young or old, as
chance may determine. The present occupier of this
important post became so when quite a child, and he is
now well stricken in years, and much respected by his
tribe."*
THE MOLUCCAS.
First Group. — Ternati, Tidor, Mortay (or Morintay), Gilolo.
Second Group. — Banda, and other small islands.
TJiird Group. — Amboyna, Ceram, Bum, Saparua, &c.
The inhabitants of these groups, or clusters, fall under
the three heads which we are now prepared to expect.
1. Mahometan Malays. — The influence of the Maho-
metan Malays had organized rajahships in the Moluccas
anterior to their discovery, A.D. 1521. Of these, the most
important was that of Ternati ; the territory of which
extends over Tidor, Gilolo, Mortay, and part of Celebes.
2. A population of the character of the Bugis, i.e. the
population of the Archipelago, as developed by the influence
of the sea-coast and the commerce that it evolved.
3. A population of the interior of the Dyak (?) type. —
Respecting these last I have not the definite information I
could wish for. Small as are some of the islands — Am-
boyna and Tidor — tribes inferior and subordinate to the
natives of the coasts and town, have been ascribed to the
interior. Forrest states that these are Papua. This they
are likely enough to be. Still it would not be surprising
if they were light-coloured, and of the Dyak type.
Since the publication of Sir Stamford Raffles1 tabulated
vocabularies for these parts, I have looked in vain for any-
vocabulary representing a language other than the Malay.
The Guebe vocabulary of Durville is Malay, and the Am-
boyna and Ceram vocabularies of Roorda van Eysingen are
Malay.
* Brooke, vol. ii. p. 65.
176 AMPHINESIAN" OCEANIC MONGOLIDJ1.
The European influences have been Portuguese in the
first instance. Afterwards and, at present, Dutch. Chi-
nese settlements also are numerous.
Eastward of the Molucca Islands we come to New
Guinea and the islands in its immediate neighbourhood.
These belong to another department of the subject. The
division at present to be noticed is the Philippine portion
of the Malay area. This lies northward to the parts
already described, and may have received its population
by any one (or more than one) of the following lines of
connexion.
1. The Long island of Palawan — Lu9on, Mindoro,
Busvagaon, Calamian, Palawan, Balabac, North-western
Borneo.
2. The Sulu Archipelago — Mindanao, Basilian, the
Stilus, North-eastern Borneo.
3. Sangir and the islands to the north and south of it —
Mindanao, Serangani, Sangir, Siao, the Guuing Tellu
country in the North-east of Celebes.
4. Mindanao, Serangani, Salibabo, Gilolo : Gilolo being
equidistant between Celebes and Papua.
The first of these lines is the most probable.
PALAWAN.
Palawan, or Paragoa, is mentioned more from its prominence as a continuity
of Borneo than for the sake of description. It is little known : partially under
the Spaniards, partially independent.
THE SULUS.
These are also stepping-stones from Borneo. They are Malay ; and the head-
quarters of a Malay power ; the most piratical of these seas. The Sultan of Sulu
is the terror of the Dyaks of Borneo. He is also the sovereign of part of that
island, of part of Palawan, and of the Cayagan group. I only know the short
Sulu vocabulary of Rienzi.
THE PHILIPPINES.
Divisions. — 1. The southern island of Magindano, or Mindanao. 2. The
northern island of Lu^on, or Lu<jonia. 3. The Bissayan Archipelago between
THE PHILIPPINES. 177
the two. Of this last, the most important islands are Mindoro, Samar, Leyte,
Panay, and the Isola de Negros.
Population. — Malay and Negrito.
Although at the present moment the aboriginal popu-
lation of the Philippines may be studied in detail, such
detail will be avoided ; and no more than four leading
points will be noticed.
1. The Blacks of the Philippine group. — The existence
of tribes darker coloured than the generality, is one of the
earliest of the observations on these parts ; and its confir-
mation one of the latest facts in modern ethnology.
Beginning at the island of Mindanao, we find, in Mallat,*
the names of the following tribes — Dumagas, Malanaos,
Manabos, and Tagabaloys. These are not described in
detail, but are said to belong to the same type with the
Negroes of the Bissayan Archipelago and Lu9onia. They
constitute the still savage tribes of the forests and
mountains.
In the Archipelago our knowledge becomes more dis-
tinct, though still imperfect. The Blacks of Lasso were
visited by Lafond Lurcy. They were nearly naked, with
hair like cotton, very slim, and very undersized. Dr.
Prichard makes these Negritos members of a group which
he calls i\\Q puny Negroes of the Archipelago.
What Lafond Lurcy writes coincides with the state-
ments of Mallat ; who speaks of the Blacks of the type in
question as being very Negro in feature, with the nose
peu epate, and with the hair crepu.
The Isola de Negros takes its name from the greater
proportion of the population being of this character, i.e.
black, after the manner of the African.
In Lu9onia, however, a second type appears.
* Description des Isles Philippines.
178 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
IGOROTS.
Taller than the southern Blacks ; more copper- coloured- than black ; eyes
oblique ; frontal sinuses much developed ; hair harsh, hard, lank, and bright-
black. Painted ; tattooed on their hands with a figure like the sun.
BUSIKS.
More agricultural than the Igorots. Tattooed.
BUSAOS.
Milder in temper than the Igorots ; tattooed on the arms only ; pierced and
enlarged ears.
ITETEPANES.
Small, and short ; black ; flat-nosed ; eyes less oblique than those of the
Igorots ; hair straight.
All this verifies the statement of the Abbate Bernardo
del Fuente,* according to which there are two varieties of
Philippine Blacks, one with long1, fine, and glossy, and one
with crisped hair.
2. The Philippine languages. — Of these the most impor-
tant are the Tagala, the Bissayan, the Pampango, the
Iloco, and the Abac. Of the Bissayan there are several
dialects : the Mindanao, the Samar, the lolo, the Bohol.
The structure of the Tagala has been particularly studied
by Humboldt. It represents the Malay in its most com-
plex form ; and is essentially agglutinate in respect to its
inflexion.
All the numerous Philippine dialects and languages are
fundamentally Malay. Those of the Blacks are but little
known. Still, as far as our knowledge extends, the philo-
logical phenomenon is the same as with the Samang of the
Malayan Peninsula. The difference in language is less
than the difference of form and colour.
3. The Extent of Hindu influences. — These are less in
the Philippines than in Celebes, and much less than in Java
* From Prichard, vol. v. p. 220
TAGALAS. 1 79
and Bali. Still the Philippines have a native alphabet,
and this native alphabet has the same origin with the
alphabets of Sumatra, Java, and Celebes ; viz. the Hindu
Devanagari.
4. The remains of the original mythology. — I give what
I know of this in the following note from Marsden's
Sumatra,* where it is inserted from Thevenot, for the sake
of illustrating that of Sumatra.
" The chief deity of the Tagalas is called Bathala mei
Copal, and also Dinata ; and their principal idolatry con-
sists in adoring those of their ancestors who signalised
themselves for courage or abilities ; calling them Huma-
lagar, i.e. manes. They make slaves of the people who
do not keep silence at the tombs of their ancestors. They
have great veneration for the crocodile, which they call
nono, signifying grandfather, and make offerings to it.
Every old tree they look upon as a superior being, and
think it a crime to cut it down. They worship also
stones, rocks, and points of land, shooting arrows at these
last as they pass them. They have priests, who, at their
sacrifices, make many contortions and grimaces, as if
possessed with a devil. The first man and woman, they
say, were produced from a bamboo, which burst in the
island of Sumatra ; and they quarrelled about their mar-
riage. The people mark their bodies in various figures,
and render them of the colour of ashes ; have large holes
in their ears ; blacken and file their teeth, and make an
opening, which they fill up with gold. They used to
write from top to bottom, till the Spaniards taught them
to write from left to right. Bamboos and palm-leaves
serve them for paper. They cover their houses with straw,
leaves of trees, or bamboos split in two, which serve for
* Page 302, &c.
180 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
tiles. They hire people to sing and weep at their funerals;
burn benzoin ; bury their dead on the third day in strong
coffins, and sometimes kill slaves to accompany their
deceased masters. They held the caiman, or alligator, in
great reverence, and when they saw him they called him
nono, or grandfather, praying with great tenderness that
he would do them no harm ; and, to this end, offered him
of whatever they had in their boats, throwing it into the
water. There was not an old tree to which they did not
offer divine worship, especially that called lalete; and even
at this time they have some respect for them. Beside
these they had certain idols inherited from their ancestors,
which the Tagalas called anito, and the Bissayans, divata.
Some of these were for the mountains and plains, and they
asked their leave when they would pass them. Others for
the corn-fields ; and to these they recommend them, that
they might be fertile, placing meat and drink in the fields
for the use of the anitos. There was one of the sea, who
had care of their fishing and navigation ; another of the
house, whose favour they implored at the birth of a child,
and under whose protection they placed it. They made
anitos also of their deceased ancestors, and to these were
their first invocations in all difficulties and dangers. They
reckoned amongst these beings all those who were killed
by lightning or alligators, or had any disastrous death, and
believed that they were carried up to the happy state, by
the rainbow, which they call lalan-gao. In general, they
endeavoured to attribute this kind of divinity to their
fathers, when they died in years ; and the old men, vain
with this barbarous notion, affected in their sickness a
gravity and composure of mind, as they conceived, more
than human, because they thought themselves commencing
anitos. They were to be interred at places marked out
BABYANIS. BASHIS. 181
by themselves, that they might be discovered at a distance
and worshipped. The missionaries have had great trouble
in demolishing their tombs and idols ; but the Indians,
inland, still continue the custom of pasing tubi sa nono,
or asking permission of their dead ancestors, when they
enter any wood, mountain, or corn-field, for hunting or
sowing ; and if they omit this ceremony, imagine their
nonos will punish them with bad fortune.
" Their notions of the creation of the world, and
formation of mankind, had something ridiculously extra-
vagant. They believed that the world at first consisted
only of sky and water, and between these two, a glede ;
which, weary with flying about, and finding no place to
rest, set the water at variance with the sky, which, in
order to keep it in bounds, and that it should not get
uppermost, loaded the water with a number of islands, in
which the glede might settle and leave them at peace.
Mankind, they said, sprang out of a large cane with two
joints, that, floating about in the water, was at length
thrown by the waves against the feet of the glede, as it
stood on shore, which opened it with its bill, and the man
came out of one joint, and the woman out of the other.
These were soon after married by consent of their god,
Bathala Meycapal, which caused the first trembling of the
earth ; and from thence are descended the different nations
of the world."
THE BABYANIS.
Locality . — Due north of Luqon.
THE BASHIS.
Locality. — Due north of the Babyanis.
I have no details respecting the Babyanis and the
Bashis. They have been noticed, however, as forming the
tract from Lu9on to —
182 AMPHINESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID^.
FORMOSA.
Name. — Chinese Tai-ouan, originally Toung-fan.
Political Relations. — Western side, subject to China. Eastern side inde-
pendent.
Languages. — Numerous dialects. The only known vocabulary, Malay.
AuOiority. — Klaproth. Description de Formose, Melanges Asiatiques, p. 195.
The knowledge of the island of Formosa on the part of
the Chinese begins no earlier than the year 1430 A.D. ; and
its oldest name in Chinese, Toung-fan, means barbarians of
the East. The later name means the Bay of Heights.
This term is explained by the geological structure of the
island. It is bisected from north to south by a line of
mountains, upon which snow lies during November and
December. This range is a line of demarcation in ethno-
logy as well as politics. West of it we have the district
that pays tribute to the Chinese, and in which there is a
standing Chinese army, and a number of Chinese immi-
grants— chiefly employed in the rice cultivation. In the
mountains themselves, and to the east of them, are the
Aborigines. These are said to approach the Negro type,
and to differ from one another in language — a fact that we
are now prepared to expect rather than to discredit. Their
arms are the dart and bow ; and their swiftness of foot is
described by the Chinese as being equal to that of the
swiftest dogs.
They are Malayan in stock, and apparently but little
mixed. The Japanese, and the Luchu on the northern
part of the island, and the Dutch on the present Chinese
locality seem to have been their chief visitors. Neither
held their ground permanently.
That an island so near as Formosa should have been so
long unknown to the Chinese, surprises Klaproth ; who rea-
sonably thinks that it was known at an earlier period, but
known under a different name. The more so, as the Pes-
POLYNESIANS. 183
cadores islands, half-way between, are within sight of the
mainland.
It is safe to consider that the population of Formosa is
a continuance of the population of Lucon, and the Bashi
islands. Of the island Lang-khiao, at the southernmost end
of Formosa, I find, in Klaproth, an express statement that
it is inhabited, and that its inhabitants are great breeders
of sheep.
Of the Pescadores the original population is unknown.
From what I collect from Klaproth, the natives were re-
moved in 1387, A.D., by the Chinese, and transplanted
elsewhere. How far this was, partial or complete, is un-
certain. At present they are inhabited — probably by the
Chinese, who replaced the exiles of 1387.
******
There can be but little doubt that Formosa was peopled
from the northern part of Lu9onia ; in which case its
inhabitants represent the stock of the Igorots, Busiks, &c.,
as modified by a more northern position, and by Chinese
rather than Malay elements.
With Formosa we reach the northernmost limits of the
Malays in this direction. The Lu-chu islands, north of
Formosa, have their affinities with Japan, and Japan has
its affinities with the North and West, rather than with the
South and East.
THE POLYNESIANS.
Area. — From the small islands to the west of the Pelews to Easter Island,
west and east. From the Mariannes and the Sandwich Islands north, to New
Zealand south.
Physical Conformation. — Modified Protonesian. Stature, perhaps, taller ;
tendency to corpulence more common ; colour oftener approaching that of the
European ; hair often waved or curling ; nose frequently aquiline.
Nutrition. — But little azotized ; saccharine and amylaceous.
Aliment. — Preeminently vegetable, the coco-nut, the taro, the banana. Fish.
Negative Characters. — Little, or no, use of the bow and arrow ; considered to
be a differential point between Polynesia and Kelaenonesia.
184 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
Conditions of Social and Physical Development. — Absence of large animals,
either as beasts of burden or as food. Nearly general absence of rice and pulse.
Intercourse entirely by means of canoes. Between Polynesia and Protonesia
little or none. Between the different portions of Polynesia limited or partial.
Malay and Hindu influences obscure. Present influences European ; of recent
date.
Religion. — Paganism, apparently indigenous. Uniform in its general character
over a great extent.
Languages. — Allied to each other, and mutually intelligible over large areas.
Grammatical structure akin to the Tagala. Malay words numerous and evident.
Divisions. — 1. Micronesian Branch. 2. Proper Polynesian Branch.
Reasons will now be given for drawing a distinction
between the Micronesians and the Proper Polynesians, and
also for taking the Micronesians first in order. In the
former I follow Pri chard. In the latter I believe my
arrangement is singular.
1. MM. Dumont Durville and Lesson, to whose obser-
vations on this, as in many other portions of oceanic eth-
nology, much of our information is due, have agreed in
disconnecting the natives of the Western Oceanic Islands
from those of the Eastern ; insisting upon a difference
of language, and a difference in physical conformation.
Nay more, they would connect them with the Mongols
of the Continent. To give prominence to this difference
of opinion on the part of judges so well qualified as the
two investigators in question, was Prichard's reason for
thus separating the Archipelago of the Pacific into two
sections.
For my own part I consider that the grounds of differ-
ence set forth by MM. Lesson and Dumont Durville,
although insufficient to establish the double position of an
affinity with the Mongolians, and of a wo-affinity with the
Polynesians, are sufficient to justify the subdivision of the
kind in question. The absence, in Micronesia, of certain
Polynesian customs, and the modified form of others are
additional reasons.
POLYNESIANS. 185
2. The reason for taking the Micronesian branch before
the Proper Polynesian, involves the following question —
What was the line of population by which the innumerable
islands of the Pacific, from the Pelews to Easter Island,
and from the Sandwich Islands to New Zealand became
inhabited by tribes, different from, but still allied to, the
Protonesian Malays ? — That line, whichever it be, where
the continuity of successive islands is the greatest, and,
whereon the fewest considerable interspaces of ocean are
to be found.
This is the general answer, a priori ; subject to modi-
fication from the counterbalancing phenomena of winds, or
currents unfavourable to the supposed migration.
Now this answer, when applied to the geographical details
regarding the distribution of land and sea in the great
Oceanic area, indicates the following line — New Guinea,
New Ireland, the New Hebrides, the Figis, and the Tonga
group, &c. From hence the Navigators1 Isles, the Isles
of the Dangerous Archipelago, the Kingsmill, and other
groups, carry the frequently- diverging streams of popula-
tion over the Caroline Islands, the Ladrones, the Pelews,
Easter Island, &c.
This view, however, so natural an inference from a mere
land-and-sea survey, is complicated by the ethnological
position of the New Guinea, New Ireland, and New He-
brides population. These are not Protonesian, and they
are not Polynesian. Lastly, they are not intermediate to
the two. They IreaJc rather than propagate the continuity
of the human stream ; a continuity which exists geogra-
phically but fails ethnologically.
The recognition of this conflict between the two proba-
bilities, has determined me to consider the Micronesian
Archipelago, as that part of Polynesia which is the part
186 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
most likely to have been first peopled ; and hence comes a
reason for taking it first in order.
THE MICRONESIAN BRANCH OF THE POLYNESIAN STOCK.
Area. — The Pelew, Caroline, Marianne Islands. The Tarawan group. As
far south as about 7° S. L.
Physical Conformation. — More Mongolian, in the limited sense of the term,
than the proper Polynesian. Varieties both of hair and complexion.
Language. — Dialects, probably, mutually intelligible. Probably unnintelligi-
ble to the Proper Polynesians.
Political relations. — Partly independent ; partly subject to Spain.
Religion. — Paganism and Romanism.
European intermixture. — Chiefly Spanish.
Negative characters. — Absence of the tabu under the form in which it appears
in Polynesia. Use of the drink called kava either restricted, or modified,
Considered to be differential points between Micronesia and Polynesia.
In these negative characters (of which, however, it is
doubtful whether the exact extent has been ascertained),
superadded to the fact, of the Micronesian dialects forming
a separate language unintelligible to the Polynesian, and
to the difference — real or supposed — in their physical ap-
pearance, lie good and sufficient reasons for considering the
Micronesians to form a separate division. To which may
be added, considerable differences in the way of creed and
mythology.
LORD NORTH'S ISLAND.
Locality.— Latitude 3° 2' N. Longitude 131° 4' E.
Population. — About three or four hundred.
Physical conformation. — Complexion, light copper, lighter than that of the
Malays or Pelew islanders. Face broad, cheek-bones high, nose flattened.
Pantheon. — Chief deity Yaris. Progenitor Pita-kat.
The account of Horace Holden,* an American sailor,
who, with eleven others, reached the island of Tobi, in a
boat, and who was detained there two years, is our only
source of information for this important locality — the nearest
point of contact between Polynesia and Protonesia.
* United States' Exploring Expedition.
MICBONESIANS. 187
No tribes have a harder struggle for existence. During
the whole of HoldeiTs residence, only five turtle were
taken ; fish being also scanty. Hence coco-nuts and the taro
formed the chief food. It is reasonable, as well as chari-
table, to refer the churlishness of their tempers to this state
of indigence. Perhaps, also, it is the reason why the men,
as compared with the women, take a fair share of the
labour of cultivation — a custom rare in other parts of
Polynesia.
The effects of hunger in reducing the population are
seconded by those of war. And here, the only weapons
are the spear and club — no bows and no arrows.
The houses " are built of small trees and rods, and
thatched with leaves. They have two stories, a ground-
floor, and a loft, which is entered by a hole or scuttle
through the horizontal partition or upper floor.
" For ornament they sometimes wear in their ears, which
are always bored, a folded leaf ; and round their necks a
necklace made of the shell of the coco-nut, and a small
white sea-shell."
All this merely connects them with the Micronesians.
The tradition respecting Pita-Jcat is more important. He
" came many years ago from the island of Ternati, and
gave them their religion, and such simple arts as they
possessed.1'1
SONSORAL.— JOHANNES ISLAND.
Locality. — West of the Pelews. Nearest point to the Philippines.
THE PELEW GROUP.
Synonym. — Palaos.
Chief Islands. — Corror, Babelthouap, Pelelion.
Native quadrupeds. — Rats.
Vegetable products. — Coco-nut, bread-fruit, yam, batata, taro, ebony, sugar-
cane, orange, banana, bamboo, paper-mulberry. Rice and pulse wanting.
The paucity of quadrupeds, and the abundance of tro-
188 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
pical vegetables is common to the Pelew Islands, and the
whole of Polynesia. Hence, it is mentioned once for all.
The chief exception, however, is an important one. The
hog will be found to be partially distributed ; and the par-
tial character of its distribution has been one of the instru-
ments of ethnological criticism (especially in the hands of
the French naturalists), by means of which the order of
succession in which the different islands have been peopled
has been investigated.
CLUSTER OF GOULOU."
Direction — North-east from the Pelews.
Locality. — Between the Pelews and the —
CLUSTER OF YAP.
OULUTHY OR EGOY ISLANDS.
THE MARIANNES.
Synonym. — Ladrones.
Name of Natives. — Chamorros.
Chief islands. — Guam, Rota, Tinian.
Physical appearance of Natives. — Stature higher than that of the other
islanders, tendency to corpulence greater.
Intermixture. — Considerable, i.e. with Polynesians, Philippine islanders,
Spaniards.
Rota and Tinian are remarkable for containing the re-
mains of massive stone buildings ; the original use of which
is wholly unknown to the present natives. The same pheno-
menon will be repeated in Tonga-tabu and Easter Island.
The Mariannes form the most northern portion of Micro-
nesia. The direction will now be due east from the cluster
of Goulou ; about mid-way between the Pelews and Yap.
OULUTHY GROUP.
Synonym. — Egoy Islands.
LAMOURSEK AND SATAWAL GROUPS.
Direction. — West to east.
Extent.— From 140° to 15° E. L. from Paris. Under 5° N. L.
According to the map and nomenclature of Duraont Durville.
MICRONESIANS. 189
Particular islands. — Lamoursek, Satawal, Faroilep (the most northern), Auru-
pig (the most southern).
PROPER CAROLINE GROUP.
Direction. — From the Lamoursek and Satawal group fifteen degrees westward.
Particular islands. — Hogoleu, Lougounor, Pounipet, Ualan.
A distinction which will often be applied in Polynesian
ethnology may now t>e made. It is the difference between
the geological structure of the different islands. Whether
they are what is called high or low is important. In the
high islands, where the structure is primitive, metamorphic,
or volcanic, the conditions for social development are more
favourable than in the low islands, of a coralline structure.
In these last the food is less abundant, the sun more
scorching, and, generally, the complexion of the inhabitants
darker.
Again, the inhabitants of the low islands are generally
at peace amongst themselves : those of the high islands
at war.
In the ethnology of the Paumoto Archipelago, this
distinction will be repeated. So it will elsewhere.
LOUGOUNOR.
Synonym. — Lougoullos. Mortlock island.
Physical conformation — Stature, above the average ; colour, chemut, lips thick,
beard long but thin, hair black, long, thick, slightly curling (un pen crepu), some-
times frizzy — L'utke, from Prichard.
Language. — Allied to, but different from, the Ualan.
POUNIPET.
Structu re. — Volcanic.
Population. — About two thousand.
Physical Appearance, — Face broad and flat, nose flat, lips thick, hair crisp.
Colour, between chesnut and olive. Height, average. — Liitke from Prichard.
UALAN.
The chief island of the Central Caroline group, or of the Caroline Islands in
the more general sense of the term.
Structure. — Volcanic.
Physical conformation of the natives. — Stature average, hair black, beard
190 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLHLE.
scanty, only in some cases thick, forehead narrow, eyes oblique, nose somewhat
flattened, face broad, complexion clear yellow (citron), lightest in the case of the
chiefs. — Lesson.
As the succession of islands now becomes less regular, and
as the interval of sea between Ualan and the Archipelagoes
east of it is considerable, it is necessary to consider the
lines of passage between the proper Carolines and the Ralik
and Radak chains to the north-west. These are two.
1. From Pounipet to the Isles of Brown ; with Provi-
dence Isles half-way between.
2. From Ualan to the Radak chain, or Mulgrave's
Islands.
ISLES OF BROWN.— RALIK CHAIN.
Synonym. — Marshall's Islands.
RADACK CHAIN.
Synonym. — Mulgrave's Islands.
The Radack and Ralik people are dark.
The direction is now south, and south-west, to an Archi-
pelago lying under the Equator.
KINGSMILL'S GROUP.
GILBERT ISLANDS.
SCARBOROUGH ISLANDS.
General name. — The Tarawan group.
Latitude. — North and south of the Equator.
Longitude. — Nearly that of the Fiji islands.
Population. — Perhaps sixty thousand. In Drummond's Island six thousand.
Physical appearance. — Complexion dark copper. More Protonesian than Poly-
nesian. Cheek-bones projecting, nose slightly aquiline. Average height five
feet eight inches.
In Pitt Island, the most northern of the group, the
natives are lighter in colour than the other islanders, taller,
stronger, and better-limbed ; with smooth bodies, oval
faces, and regular and delicate features.
PROPER POLYNESIANS. 191
THE PROPER POLYNESIAN BRANCH OF THE POLYNESIAN
STOCK.
Area. — The Navigators, Society, Friendly, and other groups of the Pacific.
The Marquesas ; the Dangerous Archipelago ; Easter Island ; the Sandwich
Isles ; New Zealand, &c. With the exception of the Sandwich Isles and New
Zealand, south and east of Micronesia. Nearer to Kelsenonesia than to any part
of Protonesia.
Physical conformation. — Maximum and, perhaps, average stature higher than
in Micronesia. Aquiline nose commoner. Varieties both of hair and complexion.
The former wavy and curled as well as straight ; sometimes chesnut-coloured.
Skin, often fairest in the parts nearest the Equator ; becoming darker as the
distance increases. Oftener, also, darker in the coralline than in the volcanic
islands.
Face oval. Ears generally large.
Zygomatic development moderate. Occipito-frontal profiles truncated behind,
elevated at the vertex.
Nostrils generally spreading.
Language. — Dialects mutually intelligible ; probably unintelligible to the
Micronesians.
Political relations. — Wholly independent, colonized, or protected.
Religion. — Paganism, Romanism, Protestantism, Imperfect Christianity.
European intermixture. — Chiefly English, American, and French.
Habits. — The superstition of the tabu ; the use of kava as a drink. See the
notice of Micronesia. Cannibalism, tattooing, circumcision, more or less, common.
With the view of saving repetition, a notice of the Poly-
nesian mythology will precede the enumeration of the
islands ; for each and all of these the creed being, in its
general principles, as truly one and the same as is the
language, the same divinities appearing with the same
functions and under similar, or but slightly-changed, deno-
minations. Hence, sometimes the difference between two
Pantheons is merely verbal. Generally, however, it is real.
Even then, however, we find no new element ; but one of
two things. Either the same story appears in a varied
form ; or else some portion of the mythology which is but
slightly prominent in one group of islands, takes unusual
importance in another ; the fundamental identity of cha-
racter being manifest throughout.
Of the common elements of the general Polynesian creed
192 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
the following are the most important ; those which are
most special, and least general or abstract, being taken first
in order.
The supernatural spirits that interfere directly with hu-
man concerns. — Mischievous beings, imps or goblins, that
play so prominent a part in the superstitions of all coun-
tries, play a prominent part in those of Polynesia. These
may appear under any out of a multiplicity of forms.
There may be the spirit protective to a certain family ; the
spirit protective to a certain pursuit ; the god of the sailor,
the fisherman, or the tiller of the soil. Good they may
do and mischief they may do — either in a material or an
immaterial form, in their own shape or in the shape of
sharks, lizards, storks, snipes, or any other dumb animal.
From a belief of this kind to the superstition of omens is
but a single step, so that rats that squeak, and comets that
show their beards, and noses that sneeze, and birds that
fly the wrong way, all become the expositors from Powers
beyond those of mortality. Then the rock, and glen, and
above all the volcano and earthquake, become palpable
objects to be connected with a presiding divinity.
To these and to the like of these all the islanders look.
Some look beyond them.
Muoi (Mawi) is more man than God ; the supporter, or
rather the support, of the earth. This lies on the gigantic
extension of his body ; and earthquakes result from its
movements. Where he is either more or less than the
comparatively passive substructure of all things material,
he is a wise wizard who foretells events ; or else the maker
rather than foundation-stone of the world. Just as Tan-
galoa did in the other parts of Polynesia, Mawi did in
New Zealand. What this was will be soon seen.
The Cosmogony. — The Polynesian world — how much
PROPER POLYNESIANS. 193
beyond it is uncertain — was fished up from sea by Tan-
galoa ; Tahiti was the first part that appeared. Just as
its rocks showed above water, the line broke. However,
the rock in which the hook stuck can still be seen in the
island of Hoonga ; and the family of Tuitonga, until very
lately, were in possession of the hook. There was enough
land, however, to be worth filling with human beings and
human food. And this was done by Tangaloa.
Such is the Tonga account. In New Zealand, as
already stated, the artificer is changed ; and Mawi does
the work of Tangaloa. In Tahiti, and Samoa, the work-
man is the same, but the work different. The Tahitian
Tangaloa formed the ocean from the sweat of his brow —
so hard did he work in making the land. The Samoan
sent down his daughter Tali, in the shape of a snipe, to
survey the world below. As she saw nothing but sea, her
father rolled down a stone which became one island, and
another which became a second, and so on. The first
growth of such islands were wild vines. These were pulled
out of the ground, and heaped up to rot, so that worms
were produced. Out of these worms grew men and
women.
The Happy Island. — In an island like their own, only
more beautiful, live the higher gods, and the souls of chiefs,
kings, and councillors. In Tonga this island is Bolotoo.
It was once visited ; but those who visited it died, having
breathed its air.
The residents and visitors of the Happy Island. — First
amongst these are the gods themselves and their servants ;
not, however, Mawi —
The souls of the chiefs after death —
The souls of the councillors after death —
* In Tahitian, Taaroa.
194 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
Caste-system. — The list of the inhabitants of Bolotoo
stops at a certain line of nobility. The people are the ser-
vants of the chiefs, and the servants of the chiefs have no
share of enjoyment after death.
At this point, the mythology and the social constitution
of the Polynesians act and react upon each other. Those
who have no political rights in life, have no existence after
death (or vice versa) ; and the result is a system half caste,
and half feudalism.
Whether the king or priest be paramount, depends upon
their respective individual characters. There is room for
the subtle brain as well as for the strong hand. So it is,
as between king and chief. The vassalage is perfect or
imperfect according to the strength of the parties. What-
ever, however, may be the relative position of the king,
the priest, or the chiefs, the people are sure of their thral-
dom ; a thraldom to their immediate superior, the chief.
Add to these elements of social subordination and insub-
ordination, the existence of tribes and the influence of
descent. A family may be descended from some god that
took an earthly island for his residence. This will give it
a precedence even over the kings.
From the feeling of pedigree, and from the belief that
the nobler families become spirits after death, we have the
belief in ghosts, and the reverence for the dead. Whoever
studies the details of the Polynesian creeds and traditions
will find abundant instances of this ; and in such detail
they should be studied. To exhibit them (as has just been
attempted) in a general point of view, can only be done
by applying terms adapted to a different system, and, as
such, only partially appropriate. It can only be done at
the sacrifice of those special elements which give life and
individuality to a description. Such, however, as it is, the
PKOPER POLYNESIANS. 195
previous sketch is the only one that could be admitted into
a work like the present.
*****
Beginning with the fourteenth degree S. L., the distribu-
tion of the Polynesian islands runs off in three different
directions.
1. From west to east; i.e. from the Navigators' Islands
to Easter Island.
2. North-east ; to the Sandwich Islands in 20° N. L.
3. South-west ; to New Zealand in 35° S. L.
I (" ^ ' ' \ 7
NAVIGATORS' ISLANDS.
Synonym. — Archipelago of Samoa.
Islands. — Opoun, Leone, Sanfoue, Maouna, Oiolava, Pola.
Complexion. — Dark bronze.
Numbers. — According to Captain Wilkes, 56,000 : of which 14,850 are Chris.
tians. Majority of the remainder attending the missionary schools.
Pantheon. — Tangaloa-lagi, Tamafaiga, Sinleo, Onafanna, Mafuie, Salefu, Merua
Fuana, Tinitini, Lamanau, Tuli, &c.
Real or supposed peculiarities. — Use of the bow ; which is used also in De
Peyster's island. Rare elsewhere.
THE TONGA GROUP.
Synonym. — The Hapai Islands ; the Friendly Islands.
ISLANDS. POPULATION.
Eooa 200
Hapai 4,000
Vavao 4,000
Keppell's Island 1,000
Boscawen's Island 1,300
Tonga-tabu 8.000
Total 18,500
Said to be on the increase. Number of Christians, about 4,500.
Pantheon. — Muoi. — The Hotooas, Tali-y-tobd, Higooleo, Tooboo-toti, Alai-
valoo, Ali.-ali, Tangaloa — Tangaloa's sons, Toobo, and Vaca-acow-ooli, &c.
Bolotoo=the Happy Island.
Term for the Tonga chiefs —Egi.
„ „ councillors — Mataboulai.
,, ,, king— How.
„ „ lower classes — Mooa.
„ , , lowest — Tooa.
o2
196 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
Real or supposed peculiarities. — Infant sacrifices ; the cutting off of a finger on
the death of relatives ; domestic architecture on a scale approaching that of Bor-
neo. Remains of stone architecture ; probably the tombs of the chiefs.
HERVEY ISLES. 0* fn'Ki Jsi
Names. — Rarotonga, Atiu; Mangaia, Aitutaki, Mauke, Mitiaro, Manuai.
Population. — About fourteen thousand ; of which one-half belongs to Raro-
tonga.
AUSTRAL ISLANDS.
Names. — Rimatara, Rurutu, Tupuai, Raivavai.
Population. — About one thousand. Decreasing.
RAP A.
Locality. — South of any island yet named, and isolated.
THE TAHITIAN GROUP.
Synonym, — The Society Islands.
Islands. — Ulietea, Otaha, Bolabola, Huaheine, Tabai, Maurua.
Pantheon. — The Tii Maaraauta = the spirit reaching toward the land. The
Tii Maaraatai =the spirit reaching toward the sea. Eatooa = gods in general.
Tii Hina, Taaroa ( =: Tangaloa). Maui Raiatea (the analogue of Bolotoo).
Terms for the Tahiti chiefs — Eree, or Tiara.
„ „ councillors — Manahounis.
„ „ lower classes — Toutous.
PAUMOTU.
Meaning. — Cloud of islands.
Synonym. — The Low Islands. Dangerous Archipelago.
Structure. — Generally coralline.
Particular islands and groups —
AURA.
Locality.— -S. L. 15° 40' W. L. 146° 30' The most savage of all the islands
of the Archipelago, and the one that has most rarely been visited with impunity.
CHAIN ISLAND.
Locality — S. L. 17° 30' W. L. 45° 30' Described as being like Aura, to
Captain Fitzroy, by Mr. Middleton, who had passed some time on the island.
Cannibals. Conquerors of the rest of the Archipelago, except Aura. The first
ship they had manned by a black crew.
GAMBIER ISLANDS.
Names. — Mangareva, Akena, Akamaru, Tarawari, &c.
Structure. —Volcanic.
Population. — About two thousand.
PITCAIRN ISLAND.
Locality. — South of the Gambier group.
PROPER POLYNESIANS.
197
DUCIE'S ISLAND.
Locality. — West of the Gambier group.
There is a great difference in physical conformation
between the inhabitants of different members of the Pau-
motu group. Some are well-made, nearly on a level with
the measurements of European, and with a " fine Asiatic
countenance, with beards and mustaches, but no whis-
kers— men who might pass for Moors.""* Others approach
the character of the Negroes.
We know now the doctrine that this difference will
engender ; and we know the exception that it will call
for. More than one writer have seen in Paumotu islanders
specimens of a second race. More than one have seen only
the same race under different conditions.
Now, Captain Beechey has found that this difference iu
the inhabitants coincides with the difference of the islands.
The well-grown tribes of the Polynesian type are the tribes
of the volcanic Islands, Pitcairn's and the Gambier group.
The blacker variety is found on the low islands,
EASTER ISLAND.
Synonym. — Teape.
Locality. — The most eastern island of Polynesia. Solitary.
In Easter Island there stood in the year 1 722, and there
stand now, statues of colossal proportions, sometimes on the
level ground, sometimes on platforms of hewn stone, repre-
senting (or misrepresenting) the upper half of the human
figure, with enormous ears, shapen out of lavas, some soft,
and some too hard for any tool known to the present
natives, objects of wonder to them, but not objects of
worship.
That they are not objects of worship is inferred from
the extent to which they are neglected. When fallen, or
* Beechey.
198 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
broken they are not repaired ; neither are they connected
with the burial-places.
These seem to have an existence in another form, in
that of cylindrical heaps of stone ; the meaning of which
a native explained to M. de Langle by laying himself
down on the ground, and then lifting his hands towards
the sky.
The mystery of these statues is increased by a remark
of Captain Beechey's. He had seen the like of them else-
where ; but he had seen them on uninhabited islands.
The eastern extremity of the Paumotu Archipelago
points towards Easter Island ; the northern line is the
nearest point to —
THE MARQUESAS.
Names. — Hivaoa, Tahuata, Fatubiva, Easter — the south-eastern group. Nu-
kahiva, Uahuka, Uapouzithe north-western.
Population. — Perhaps two thousand.
The natives of the Marquesas are considered as the
handsomest men of Polynesia.
The natives of the Marquesas are most at war with one
another of all the Polynesians. Their chief island is
intersected by a mountain- ridge ; and the mountain-ridge
(like most mountain-ridges) supplies a fierce body of quar-
rellers.
The natives of the Marquesas speak a greater variety of
dialects (or sub-dialects) than the natives of any other
group. This has engendered the doctrine that they were
colonized from more quarters than one.
Distant though it be the Nukahiva group is the nearest
point to —
THE SANDWICH ISLANDS.
Names of islands according to the dialect or orthography followed by Prichard.
— Hawaii, Maui, Tahaurawe, Morokini, Ranai, Morokai, Oahu, Tauai, Niihau,
Taura.
Names of the islands according to the dialect or orthography followed by
PROPER POLYNESIANS. 199
Simpson. — Hawaii, Mowec, Kakoolawe, Lanai, Molokoi, Woahoo, Ktinai
Niihau.
Structure. — Volcanic.
Physical appearance of the natives. — Height above the average. Mouth square
and heavy.
Extract from M. Chloris : " Les enfans, en venant au nionde, sont completement
noirs ; la jeune fille la plus jolie, et la plus delicate, qui s'expose le moins a
1'action de 1'air et du soleil, est noire ; celles qui sont obligees de travailler con-
stamment a 1'ardeur du soleil, sont presque de couleur orangee/' This orange
tint is noticed by Mr. Simpson, who describes the Hawaiians as intermediate to
the black Negro and the Red American — more, however, red than black.
The majority of the Polynesian islands present the phe-
nomenon of an imperfect and recent civilization engrafted
upon a state of comparative barbarism ; and none more
than the Hawaiian group. No area is, at once, so
European and so Polynesian. Neither in any area are
the influences more mixed. The population is mixed also.
White and half-breeds constitute a large and increasing
proportion of the population ; the white being from Eng-
land, from America, and from France.
This is the way in which the admixture of foreign blood
takes place within the island itself. But it is not the only
way. The Sandwich Islanders are themselves emigrants,
and they are found upon the opposite coast of America;
thus giving admixture to the Californian and Oregon In-
dians. They do the same in South America on the coast
of Peru and Ecuador.
It is this determination of the Sandwich Islands to
America, that gives us the phenomenon of the American
and Oceanic admixture — a new and imperfectly studied
form of union.
This dispersion of the Sandwich Islanders tells a story
on more matters than one. It speaks to their enterprize,
maritime capacity, and value as industrial assistants. This
is what they are at home, and this is what they are
abroad.
200 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIDvE.
Since the discovery of the Sandwich Islands by Cook,
the three great influences that have been at work, are —
1. The wars, and policy of Kamehamehu.
2. Missionary influences.
3. Commercial and political influences.
1. At the accession of Kamehamehu, as now, the system
of caste that determines the social state of New Zealand,
Tahiti, and other parts of Polynesia, regulated that of
the Sandwich group. The chiefs, however, held but
nominally under the sovereign. Each in his own island,
was practically an independent ruler. The wars of Kame-
hamehu coerced the chiefs of the smaller islands, and left
him the sovereign of a consolidated empire. This he ad-
ministered in the spirit of a Pagan, and a conqueror. Of
the god of the volcano and earthquake that had helped
him to his early victories, he lived and died the constant
worshipper and support.
By the further favour of the same, he hoped to reduce
the Tahitian group ; an idea that raises his assemblage of
canoes to the dignity of a fleet. At any rate, the force
for land, and the force for sea underwent an incipient
organization in the reign of Kamehamehu.
Then again, he was not only a great merchant, but the
only great merchant in his dominions. The chief export
was the sandal- wood, which, bearing a high price in the
China market, and growing chiefly on the more inaccessible
mountains, could only be collected at the expense of grind-
ing labour, and fatal suffering as the portion of the helot
population. This decimated the islands as much, or even
more, than his wars.
At the death of Kamehamehu a weak tyranny succeeded
a strong one. The monopoly of the sandal-wood was
divided between the chiefs ; and the multitude of masters
PROPER POLYNESIANS. 201
increased the amount of suffering. I am writing from
what I find in Sir G. Simpson, and add that the extremes
of bloodshed and oppression brought with them their own
remedy. The coercion was too successful to leave an enemy
to fight against ; and the sandal- wood became too nearly ex-
hausted to command its previous price of life and labour.
In 1819, the great father of his dynasty died ; and his
idols died with him. Pagan as he was himself, his nation
had outgrown Paganism ; and there was a tabula rasa for
any better creed.
2. With the reign of Liho-Liho began the influence of
the missionaries — American, English, and French ; the
American and English with their respective forms of
Protestantism, the French with Romanism. I have no
inclination to meddle with the distasteful details of these
mischievous contests. The ethnological result is the triple
character of the influence now in operation. In politics,
Hawaii is independent ; independent and semi-constitu-
tional ; with its independence guaranteed by England,
America, and France. In religion it is Protestant — with
Romanism tolerated and something more ; tolerated and
making way amongst the people.
3. The improvement of the agriculture of the Sandwich
Islands is going on steadily. Silk and sugar are beginning
to be grown ; and a healthier trade is replacing the sandal-
wood monopolies.
I have admitted the previous notice of the character of
Hawaiian civilization for the sake of comparing it with the
present state and actual prospects of the islands. Cook,
when he visited them, put the population at four hundred
thousand — an exaggeration. Perhaps it came to half as
much. In 1832 and 1836, there were censuses; of which
the result was as follows : —
202 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
NAME.
Hawaii
AREA.
. . 4,600 . . .
620 . . .
POPULATION.
1832. 1836.
45,792 39,364
35,062 24,199
1,600 1.9flO
100 .. .
190 ..
, 6,600 . . .
80 ...
6,000
80
60 . . .
Woahoo
530 ...
500 . . .
29,755 . . .
10,977 • • •
1,047 • • •
27,809
8,934
995
Niihau
90 . . .
Whole group . .
. . 6,090 . . .
130 313 . . .
108 579
This gives us a reduction ; a reduction which has in-
creased by 1840. This, I suppose, is the one from which
Prichard takes his numbers, for two of the islands —
For Maui . . . 18,000
Woahoo . . . . 20,000
Emigration will not account for this decrease. This we
may see at once, from the proportion in 1840 — the figures
and reasoning are Sir Gr. Simpson's — in the single island
of Kanai, between that part of the population which was
under, and that part which was above, eighteen years
of age.
1ST DISTRICT. 2ND. DO. 3RD DO. 4TH DO.
Under eighteen 706 309 372 685
Above eighteen 2,229 1,043 1,178 2,134
Total 2,935 1,352 1,550 2,819
" Here,11 Sir G. Simpson continues, " is an average of
one person under eighteen, to rather more than three per-
sons above it — a state of things which would carry depo-
pulation written on its very face, unless every creature,
without exception, were to attain the good old age of
seventy-five.11 To this we add a remark upon the bearing
of the early period of marriages throughout Polynesia.
Not one— but two — generations are included in the
PROPER POLYNESIANS. 203
population under eighteen years ; since before that time
boys and girls have begun to have boys and girls of their
own.
This disproportion accounts for the decrease. But what
accounts for the disproportion ?
In 1824, Mr. Stuart wrote that — " in those parts of the
islands where the influence of the mission had not extended,
two-thirds of the infants born perish by the hands of their
own parents before attaining the first or second year of
their age.""
In J840, there were found in Kanai out of 5,541 adults,
only sixty-eight, and sixty-five women who had more than
two children each, and that with a bounty, in the shape of
an exemption from certain taxes, upon a number to that
amount ; whilst in Woahoo the births were sixty-one, the
deaths one hundred and thirty-two.
Distant though it be, the Tahitian group is the nearest
point to —
NEW ZEALAND.
Native name of nortliern island. — Ikana, Mawi.
Native name of southern island. — Tavai, Punamu.
Native name of tlte language. — Maori.
CHATHAM ISLAND.
Locality. — Twelve degrees east of New Zealand.
Appearance of t/ie natives. — Colour dark ; so much so as to be called by the
New Zealanders, Blafello = Black-fellow, a term adopted from the English.
Such are the larger islands and archipelagoes of Poly-
nesia. To these must be added the following smaller
groups.
UNION GROUP.
Locality- •?— Five degrees due north of the Navigators' Islands.
Names. — 1. Bowditch Isle, or Fakaafo. 2. Duke of York's Island, or Oat-
afu. 3. Duke of Clarence's Island, or Nukunono.
Population. — About one thousand.
Structure. — Coralline.
Language. — Intelligible to the Samouns.
Food. — Coco-nuts, pandanus-nuts, fish.
204 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
Although so near the Equator, the Fakaafo people are
the fairest of the Polynesians.
VAITUPU GROUP.
Name. — 1. De Peyster I., or Nukufetau.
2. Tracy's I., or Vaitupu.
3. Ellice's I., or Funafati.
Language. — Intelligible to the Samoans.
Heal or supposed peculiarity. — The bow used in De Peyster's Island. Except
in the Navigators' Isles ; rare elsewhere.
These islands have importance as connecting Northern
Polynesia with Southern Micronesia. The people are
dark-coloured and bearded.
PENRHYNN ISLAND.
Locality. — Midway between the Marquesas and Union Isles. Inhabitants
numerous as compared with the size of the island.
ROTUMA.
Synonym. — Granville Island.
Locality.— Lat. 12° 30' N. Long. 177° 15' E. Three hundred miles from
any other land.
COCO ISLAND.
TRAITOR'S ISLAND.
Locality. — North of the Friendly Islands. Lat. 15° 50' S. Long. 1 74° W.
i.e., between the Tonga and Samoan groups.
HORN ISLAND.
WALLIS ISLAND.
Locality. — Between Rotuma and the Samoan Archipelago.
SAVAGE ISLAND.
Locality. — Four degrees east of the Friendly group ; i.e., between the Tonga
Isles and the Hervey and Austral groups.
TIKOPIA.
Locality.— Lat. 12° 30' S. Long. 169°. E.
Population. — About five hundred.
In Tikopia the locality is nearly Kelsenonesian ; whilst
the physiognomy and language are Amphinesian ; and of
the two Amphinesian branches, most probably Polynesian.
On the other hand, they use the bow and arrow, and
PROPER POLYNESIANS. 205
raise cicatrices by burning — both of which habits are
Kelsenonesian.
FOTUNA.
Synonym. — Erronan. A few miles east from Tanna, a Kelaenonesian Island.
IMMER.
Synonym. — Muia- Ditto-
The locality creates the interest for these two islets.
They are not only isolated from the other parts of Poly-
nesia, but are portions of another geographical area.
FREE-WILL ISLAND.
Locality. — Fifty minutes north of line, to the west (or north-west) of New-
Guinea.
Natives. — Copper-coloured, with long black hair. — Carteret from Prichard.
The natives of Free-will Island require further descrip-
tion. It is nearly certain that they are Amphinesiau
— but whether Protonesian or Micronesian is uncertain.
Laying aside, for the present, Madagascar, and the Fiji
Islands, we shall find that the more important questions
connected with the ethnology of Polynesia are as fol-
lows—
1. The affinities with Protonesia.
2. The differences between Polynesia Proper and Mi-
cronesia.
3. The extent to which one of these last-named divi-
sions is more Protonesian than the other.
4. The details of the dispersion within the limits of a
single division ; Micronesia or Polynesia, as the case may
be.
5. The general dispersion and distribution.
6. The inferences arising from the existence of the
darker coloured, and more Negrito-like population.
7. The date of the Polynesian dispersion.
1. The affinities with Protonesia. — Much has to be done
in this department ; especially in regard to the indication
206 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
of similar habits and customs ; and in respect to the ex-
planation of undoubted and important points of difference.
Indeed, at the present moment, the proof of the Protone-
sian affinities with Polynesia is almost wholly philological.
Still, of its kind, it is satisfactory and scientific. That
isolated Malay words were to be found far beyond the
proper Malay area was known as early as the time of
Reland. By Marsden, Crawfurd, and others, the list was
enlarged. The evidence, however, that the grammatical
structure of the South-Sea languages was equally Proto-
nesian with the vocabularies, forms the most valuable part
of a late publication — the posthumous dissertation of W.
Von Humboldt on the Kawi language of Java. In this
the Tagala of the Philippines is taken as the sample of
a Protonesian grammar in its most elaborate and complex
form ; a starting-point which explains the structure of the
Polynesian and Malagasi tongues in a manner far beyond
any amount of elucidation that could have been drawn
from the comparatively simple structure of the proper
Malayan.
For all questions of this sort the great work just named
is the thesaurus and repository. It is also the thesaurus
and repository for all facts connected with the history of
the Hindu influences on Protonesia.
The other ethnological phsenomena, not philological, that
naturally belong to this part of the subject, will be noticed
under the third head.
2. The differences between Polynesia and Micronesia. —
Some of these have been noticed. None, however, have
been of equal importance with the difference of language.
The exact appreciation of their import is difficult.
The fact of the bow and arrow being either not used at
all, or used but little (according to the American explorers
PROPER POLYNESIANS. 207
in their games, but not in their wars), must be taken as
relative, rather than as a simple negative, fact.
a. It is used in Kelsenonesia.
b. The parts of Polynesia where it is used (Samoa, De
Peyster's Islands, and Tikopia) are the parts nearest to
Kelsenonesia.
The absence of the tabu in Micronesia is, probably, less
of an unqualified fact than it seems to be. In the Proper
Polynesian form, and with the Polynesian name, it has pro-
bably no existence. In more than one Micronesian island,
however, certain objects are held sacred, certain objects
are generally prohibited, and certain objects are prohibited
under certain conditions.
The Polynesian custom of drinking kava not Micronesian.
— What applies to the tabu applies here. Kava, under
the name of kava, and prepared, as in Polynesia, from
the fermentation of the root of the piper methusticon, is not
drunk in Micronesia. Shiaka, however, is a beverage at
Ualan (and probably elsewhere) ; and sJiiaka is a ferment-
ation of the leaves of the piper methusticon.
The differentiae, then, between Polynesia Proper and
Micronesia are subject to criticism; so much so that in-
stead of saying that a Polynesian custom is wanting in
Micronesia (or vice versa), we should rather say that the
Polynesian habit takes a modified form. Above all, the
criticism applicable to all negative statements is preemi-
nently applicable here.
Facts of the same sort with the kava, and tabu observa-
tions, are .to be found in other matters, e.g. the Micro-
nesian sails by the stars, the Polynesian by the flight of
birds. The Micronesian canoe is an amphisbsena, i.e. it
can be paddled either way, and it is generally simple.
The Polynesian, on the other hand, is often double, and
208 POLYNESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
almost always an outrigger : so much so that the appear-
ance of Cook's vessels, on the discovery of Tahiti, was
hailed by the natives as a fulfilment of one of the prophe-
cies of Mawi ; which was to this effect : — That a canoe
such as never had been seen by any native before — a canoe
without out-riggers, should at some future time visit the
island. Now so impossible a thing was a canoe without
out-riggers in the eyes of the Tahitians, that the pro-
phecy was laughed to scorn. So in order to gain credence,
Mawi launched his wooden dish upon the waters, which
swam as he said the strange canoe should swim. After-
wards, when Cook sailed towards the islands, his ship was
held to be the prophesied canoe ; and at the present mo-
ment English vessels have been called Mawis canoes.
The sum, perhaps, of all the distinctions of the sort
already indicated, will give between Polynesia and Micro-
nesia, the difference between a Dutchman and an English-
man ; certainly not less — probably more. Probably more,
because the very considerable difference in the details of
the two mythologies has yet to be added. A brief notice
of these may be found in Prichard's chapter on the
Marianne Islanders ; and this reference is all that our
space allows. That the difference, however, of the super-
stitions is not less (probably greater) than the difference
between the languages is a safe conclusion.
The differences in the general moral character of the
two divisions lie within a small compass. Coldness of man-
ner in general, less tendency to bloody warfare, less laxity
amongst the female part of the population, and less canni-
balism, are points wherein the Micronesian character has
the advantage. The Micronesian domestic arts also, such
as dyeing and weaving, are in advance of the Polynesians.
3. Distribution of Protonesian characteristics. — Which
PROPER POLYNESIANS. 209
of the two divisions has the most of these ? This is par-
tially answered by some of the observations which have
just preceded : two other facts answer it more fully.
a. The opinions of MM. Durville and Lesson, as to the
connexion of the Micronesians with the Mongolians — with-
out being evidence in favour of the Micronesian branch
being the more Protonesian, of the two, this is, certainly, a
fact in favour of its being the more continental.
b. The opinion of Le Grobien, one of the early Missionaries,
" that the Caroline Islanders came from the Philippines."
4. Details of the distribution within the limits of a single
division. — The question as to the particular part of Mi-
cronesia, or the particular part of Polynesia, from which
the rest of the respective areas was peopled, is so much a
part and parcel of the broader question as to the origin of
the population en masse, that it belongs, in its entirety,
to a latter stage of our inquiries. Still there are a few
facts which may be noticed at once ; and these apply to
Polynesia Proper.
Assuming as a postulate, that the direction of the line of
population is from east to west (or vice versa), from north
to south (or vice versa), &c., it is reasonable to suppose that
each isle has been peopled from the one nearest to it, and
that exclusively. Hence no second source of population is
to be assumed gratuitously. Upon reasonable grounds,
however, it may be assumed ; e.g. in the Marquesas, it is
said, that the difference of dialects for the different islands
is scarcely consistent with a population from the Paumoto
group exclusively. So also, in the Sandwich Islands,
although Nukahiva is the primd facie source of the popu-
lation, Tonga elements occur in a degree beyond that in
which they are found in Nukahiva itself. Here, also, the
inference of a second element is legitimate.
210 KEL^ENOtfESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
Missionaries and ethnologists, who have applied a saga-
cious criticism to the problem of the immediate population
of Polynesia, have found good reasons for believing that the
first archipelago of Polynesia Proper that received a popula-
tion from some other quarter, and which transmitted it, in
different streams elsewhere, was the Samoan or Naviga-
tors' Islands. This opinion, the grounds of which may be
found in full in the ethnological portion of the United
States Exploring Expedition, is, probably, the right one ;
at any rate it is the proper inference, from the facts known
to the investigators.
The last three questions will be better considered after
the notice of the Oceanic Negritos of the Kelccnonesian
area.
THE MALEGASI BRANCH (?).
The consideration of the Malegasi Amphinesians is deferred until we treat
upon the ethnology of Africa.
II.
THE KELjENONESIAN STOCK*
Physical conformation. — Modified Amphinesian Negrito. Skin rough and
harsh, black rather than brown or olive. Hair crisp, curly, frizzy, and woolly (?)
rather than straight; black. Stature from five feet, or under, to six (?).
Languages. — Not generally admitted to contain a certain proportion of Malay
words — but really containing it.
Distribution — Wholly insular ; islands often large.
Area. — New Guinea, New Ireland, Solomon's Isles, Louisiade, New Hebrides,
New Caledonia, Australia, Tasmania.
Aliment. — Mammalian fauna considerable. In parts, deficient in ruminants
and pachydermata.
Religion. — Paganism.
Social and physical development. — Maritime habits rare and partial. Industrial
arts limited. Foreign influences of all sorts inconsiderable.
* Amphi-nesian, from amfi = around, and n&sos = island ; Proto-nesian, from
protos— first ; Kelino-nesian, from kelainos •=. black. This last term is Prichard's.
I am aware that all these forms are, etymologically, incorrect. The first part is
Greek, the termination, -an, Latin ; so that they are impossible words in the
language from which they are supposed to be taken. Still the forms Polynesian
and Peloponnesian, establish a convenient, though exceptionable, precedent.
PAPUANS. 21 1
Divisions.— I. The Papua Branch. 2. The Australian Branch. 3. The Tas-
manian Branch (?).
The first question which may present itself to the
reader is one as to the difference between the tribes that
are now about to be described as Kelsenonesian, and
those which have already been described as Blacks of the
Malay area. Both are really Negrito ; and it has already
been stated that both may be called so. The answer is
— that Negrito is an ethnological, Kelceno-nesian, a geogra-
phical term. The first denotes black, or Black-like oceanic
tribes wherever found ; the latter black or Black-like tribes
when found in definite areas, wherein they form the bulk
of the population. Thus, in Amphinesia the Negrito is
exceptional, in Kelsenonesia normal, and vice versa.
THE PAPUA BRANCH OF THE KEL.ENONESIAN STOCK.
Latitude. — Southern tropic.
Area. — The islands off the north-west corner of New Guinea (?), New Guinea,
New Britannia, New Ireland, Admiralty Isles, Louisiade, Solomon's Isles,
Vanikoro (?), New Hebrides, New Caledonia. The Fiji Archipelago (?).
Direction. — South-east from New Guinea.
Physical conformation. — Kelaenonesians with crisp, curly, frizzy, and woolly (-1)
rather than straight hair.
Probable origin. — North-eastern Protonesia.
Whether we take the Protouesian islands in the line
from Timor to Moa, Sermatty, Timorlaut, the Keys, and
the Arrus, or begin with the Northern Moluccas, Gilolo,
and Morty, we equally reach the great island of New
Guinea ; and in each case the ethnological change coin-
cides with the geographical one.
THE ARRU ISLES.
Extract from Mr. JEarle. — "I do not here" (i.e., in the Timor group),
t' include the Ami isles, for tfiere I have no doubt a considerable mixture of
Papuan will be found."
The probable source, however, of the Papuan popu-
lation must be sought for in the parts about Gilolo.
Here the distinction between those islands which consti-
212 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID^E.
tute the more eastern and northern portions of the
Moluccas, and those which are considered to belong to
New Guinea, is difficult to be drawn. In Guebe, for in-
stance, the natives are described by M. Freycinet as hav-
ing flat noses and projecting lips. To this it may be added,
that their colour is dark. On the other hand, however,
the facial angle is from ten to twelve degrees higher than
that of the Negrito of New Guinea. Mr. Crawford, who
rarely either overlooks or undervalues physical distinctions,
adopts Freycinefs notice as descriptive of a second va-
riety of the true Malay type, and suggests the likelihood
of there being an intermediate race between the lank and
the woolly-haired families.
More immediately, however, in the neighbourhood of
New Guinea, we have the islands of Waigiu and Eawak.
These are so thoroughly considered by the French geo-
graphers as belonging to the Negrito area, that they are
called the Isles des Papons. With these, then, the proper
Kelsenonesian or Negrito area begins.
WAIGIU AND RAWAK.
Physical appearance. — According to M. Pellion, in Freycinet — Forehead
flat, facial angle 75°, mouth large, nose flattened, beard scanty, lower extremities
slender. Hair frizzed and spread out.
According to MM. Quoi and Gaimard — Face broad, frontal and occipital profile
flat, vertex elevated, cheek-bones prominent, temporal bones convex, the coronal
suture forming a ridge. Nasal bones broad and flat, and alee nasi spreading.
Frontal and maxillary sinuses largely developed. Molar portion of the alveolar
arch thick. Transverse diameter of the palate large ; anterior palatine foramen
large. — Voyage sur L'Uranie et La Physicienne : Zoologie,par Quoy et Gaimard.
Such are the details. An opinion, however, often gives
a better notion than a description ; and it is the opinion
of the French naturalists that the islanders in question
are a hybrid breed between the Papua and Protonesian.
This speaks to the intermediate character of the physical
appearance.
PAPUANS.
213
On the other hand, Mr. Earle, admitting both the dif-
ference and the likeness, denies that intermixture is the
cause of it ; the real and undoubted hybrids (which he
has seen and describes) being different from the Papuas
of the islands.
Under either case, however, we have the phenomenon
of a transition in form.
NEW GUINEA.
Physical appearance of the natives of tlte north-west extremity, i.e., from Waigiu
to Dorey. — 1st Variety — Undersized, slender, with oval features, and skin more
brown than black, hair elaborately frizzed.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
2nd Variety. — Fonn squat, faces square and angular, cheek-bones prominent,
lips thick, skin rough and black, hair simply tied up.
South-western coast. — Portions of the south-western
coast of New Guinea were visited by H.M.S. Fly, in
1842 — 1846, under Captain Blackwood. The notices of
Mr. Jukes upon the natives thus seen are short, and
chiefly limited to the points wherein they differed or
agreed with the islanders of Torres Straits — a portion of
the human species that has been described fully for the
first time by that writer. Tall and muscular, with the
hair tied back behind, sometimes with the head shaved,
214 KEL/ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID^.
the skin dark brown or copper-coloured, with ornaments
like the people of Erroob, and without out-riggers to their
canoes, or with out-riggers on one side only, they spoke
a language different from that of the Torres Straits
islanders.
In appearance, however, they agreed. Their huts
were raised on piles, of moderate dimension, and with
small plots of imperfectly-cleared ground around them.
The coast was low, and intersected by numerous fresh-
water channels ; and the name given to the country by
the Erroobians was Dowdee.
In Darnley Island, a female from the Dowdee coast
was seen and described by Mr. Jukes, she was lighter
coloured than the Erroobians, being of a yellowish-brown ;
had the septum narium pierced, and was tatooed, which
the females of the island are not.
Masseed. — The natives were " a well-made, fine-looking
people, of a different type from the Australians, with
muscular limbs and frizzled hair. They had the oval
epaulet-like mark on the shoulders, but no other scars.
Their hair was dressed into long, narrow, pipe-like curls,
smeared with red ochre and grease, and they wore a
band round the forehead." — Vol. 1. p. 159.
Murray Island. — Native name Maer — Volcanic. Co-
vered with cocoa-nuts, and having a language almost iden-
tical with the Erroob.
Darnley Island. — Native name, Erroob — Volcanic.
The natives here " were fine, active, well-made fellows,
rather above the middle height, of a dark brown or cho-
colate colour. They had frequently almost handsome
faces, aquiline noses, rather broad about the nostril, well-
shaped heads, and many had a singularly Jewish cast of
features. The hair was frizzled, and dressed into long,
PAPUANS. 21 5
pipe-like ringlets, smeared sometimes with red ochre,
sometimes left of its natural black colour ; others had
wigs not to be distinguished from the natural hair, till
closely examined. The septum narium was bored, but
there was seldom anything worn in it. Most of their ears
were pierced all round with small holes, in which pieces
of grass were stuck, and in many the lobe was torn and
hanging down to the shoulder. Their only scars were
the faint oval marks on the shoulder. The hair of their
bodies and limbs grew in small tufts, giving the skin a
slightly woolly appearance. They were entirely naked,
but frequently wore ornaments made of mother-of-pearl
shells, either circular or crescent-shaped, hanging round
their necks. Occasionally, also, we saw a part of a large
shell, apparently a cassis, cut into a projecting shield-
shape, worn in front of the groin. The women wore a
petticoat round the waist, reaching nearly to the knees,
formed of strips of leaves sown on to a girdle. These
formed a very efficient covering, as one or two were worn
over each other. The grown-up woman's petticoat, or
nessoor, was formed, we afterwards found, of the in-
side part of the large leaves of a bulbous-rooted plant,
called by them teggaer, of which, each strip was an
inch broad. The girl's nessoor was made of much
narrower strips from the inside of the leaf of the plantain,
which they call cabbow.
" The younger women were often gracefully formed, with
pleasing expressions of countenance, though not what we
should consider handsome features. The girls had their
hair rather long, but the women had almost all their hair
cut short, with a bushy ridge over the top, to which they,
singularly enough, give the same name as to pieces of
tortoise-shell, namely, kaisu. Many of the elder women
216 KELJ1NONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIDJl.
had their heads shaved quite smoothly, and we never
saw a woman wearing a wig, or with the long ringlets of
the men. At our first landing, all the younger women
and girls kept in the back-ground, or hid themselves in
the bush. On strolling to the back of the huts, we found
a small native path, along which we went a short dis-
tance till we came to a rude fence in front of a plantain-
ground, where the men objected to our going further,
and we heard the voices of the women among the trees
beyond.
" There were four huts at this spot, all bee-hive shaped,
sixteen feet in diameter, and as much in height. They
stood in small court-yards, partially surrounded by fences
formed of poles of bamboo, stuck upright in the ground,
close together, and connected by horizontal rails, to which
they were tied by withies. Inside the huts were small
platforms covered with mats, apparently bed-places ; and
over head were hung up bows and arrows, clubs, cala-
bashes, rolls of matting, and bundles apparently containing
bones, which they did not like our examining. Outside
the huts were one or two small open sheds, consisting
merely of a raised flat roof, to sit under in the shade,
and a grove of very fine cocoa-nut trees surrounded the
houses."
The arms of the natives were the bow and arrow, and
in holding the former, especial care was taken that the
part of the wood which was uppermost as the tree grew,
should be uppermost when used as a weapon. Rough
imitations of the human figure were common ; but
whether they served as idols or not was uncertain. The
use of tobacco was general. The language was different
from that of the Australians, and the willingness of the
people to communicate, greater, also. On the part of
PAPUANS. 217
the females, the reserve and decorum of manner formed
a striking contrast with the very different habits of the
Polynesians.
Turtle-backed Island. — Primitive — Cocoa-nut trees ;
no gum trees — " We came one day on the first symp-
toms of cultivation of the ground we had ever seen
among the aborigines of this part of the world. This was
a little circular plot of ground, not more than four or five
yards in diameter; but it had evidently been dug, though
in a rude manner, and in it were set several young plan-
tain-trees, one or two other plants, and two trailing plants,
somewhat like French beans in appearance, which we
afterwards found were a kind of yam. The huts on this
island had the appearance of a first attempt at a house,
having side walls about two feet high, and a gable-shaped
roof rising four feet from the ground. They were about
ten feet long and six feet wide, made principally of bam-
boo and thatched with grass and leaves."
Mount Ernest. — Primitive — Cocoa-nuts — Captain Black-
wood "landed upon Mount Ernest (807 feet high), and
found a group of huts much superior to any we ever
saw in Australia, a small grove of cocoa-nuts and another
of large bamboos. The natives did not show themselves
till after he left the island ; and though he spent a night
on it he did not suspect their presence at the time.
In the huts were founcT parcels of human bones, orna-
mented with red ochre, a mask or hideous face made of
wood and ornamented with the feathers of some struthious
bird, and one or two bundles of small wooden tubes, eight
inches long and half an inch in diameter, the use of which
we never could discover. The feathers so abundantly used
as ornaments on their canoes and other articles by all
these islanders, were at first taken by us for emu feathers,
218 KEL^ENONESIAX OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
as a matter of course, and supposed to be procured from
the main-land of Australia. I was afterwards, however,
induced to doubt the correctness of that supposition ; and
on comparing them (in company with my friend Mr.
George Bennett, of Sydney,) with the feathers of the
emu, in the Sydney Museum of Natural History, we 'found
them to be totally distinct from any emu feathers. They
are probably, therefore, feathers of the cassowary or some
similar bird, and are derived from New Guinea instead
of Australia."
Of all the islands of Torres Straits, this is the one
nearest to Australia, whereof the population is apparently
derived from New Guinea.
Dalrymple Island. — Native name, Damood — " The huts
were by far the neatest and best erections of the kind we
had yet seen. Each one occupied a quadrangular space,
six to eight feet wide, and from ten to fifteen feet long.
They had gable-shaped roofs, eight feet high in the
centre, and sloping on each side nearly to the ground.
The frame of the house was made of bamboo, and thickly
covered or thatched with grass and palm-leaves ; the front
and back walls were also made of small bamboo sticks,
upright and fastened close together, the front wall having
a small triangular opening for a door, over which hung
loose strips of palm leaf. The door looked into a little
court-yard, of about ten feet square, in front of the house,
strongly fenced with stout posts and stakes, interlaced
with palm leaves and young bamboos, and accessible only
by a very narrow opening between two of the strongest
posts. In this court-yard was the cooking fire. The
different huts and fences were rather irregularly disposed,
but placed closely together, so as to leave only narrow
winding passages between them. They occupied a space
PAPUANS. 219
fifty or sixty yards long by ten or fifteen broad. Behind
them was the open place of meeting, on the other side of
which, against an old tree was a semicircular pile or wall
of dugongs1 skulls about three feet high, many of which
were quite fresh, but others rotting with age ; in the mid-
dle of this was a conical heap of turtles' skulls in a similar
state. There must, altogether have been some hundreds
of skulls of each kind of animal.
" When they had conducted us into this open space,
several of them seated themselves on small well-made
mats, like those used by the Malay nations ; and two or
three went and brought a large roll of matting, at least
twelve feet by six, which they spread for us to sit down
on. These really well-made fabrics greatly surprised us
after being accustomed to the non-manufacturing Austra-
lians. They then brought us young cocoa-nuts, tortoise-
shell, and ornaments, and a great barter commenced.
They gave us cocoa-nut water without waiting to receive
anything for it, but for the other things they would
only accept tobacco and iron implements, paying no re-
gard to our beads and gaudy handkerchiefs. They
brought us two small bananas or plaintains, but we could
not see the trees on which they grew. They suffered
Captain Blackwood and myself to stroll about the huts
unattended, while they bartered with the boat's crew.
We found in the court-yard of one hut, a ship's cabin-
door, painted green, and not very old ; in another a
quaker gun, set upright in the ground, and the men said
they saw pieces of * Queen's line ' among them. They
had used pieces of iron hoops, and a long iron spike, to
open the cocoa-nuts, but these they might have procured
from passing vessels. The door and the wooden gun,
however, must have come from a wreck.
220 KELJINONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID^E.
" At the south end of the huts we came to a building
much superior to, and differing from, any of the rest. It
was like a Malay house unfinished, or one of their own
smaller huts raised on posts to a height of six or seven
feet. The point of the gable was at least fifteen feet from
the ground, the roof being supported at each end by two
stout posts about a yard apart, having their tops orna-
mented by carved grotesque faces, painted red, white, and
black, with much carving and painting below. The lower
part, or ground-floor, of this building was open all round
except at one end, where a broad, rudely-constructed
staircase led to a platform, from which went the entrance
to the upper story ; this was floored with stout sticks,
and at this end covered with mats ; this part was also
partitioned off from the other by a bamboo screen. Under
the roof hung old cocoa-nuts, green boughs, and other
similar things, but nothing to give a decided clue to the
object of the building. Whether this was their temple,
their place for depositing the dead, or a chiefs house,
we could not make out. We, however, saw no appear-
ance of any chief, or of one man exercising authority
among them, neither could we discover any traces of
religious belief or observance.*
We now struck off for a walk across the island, one of
the natives coming with us as a guide. Many narrow
paths crossed in all directions, among shrubs and bushes,
some of which resembled laurels and myrtles, in their
leaves and modes of growth. Groves of lofty forest trees
occurred here and there, with matted creepers and thick
* " This house resembled the smaller houses we afterwards saw in New Guinea,
and it may have been erected merely in imitation of those the islanders have
seen in that country. We afterwards saw, on Masseed, a solitary house like
those of Darnley and Murray Islands."
PAPUANS. 221
jungle. Several trailing briars, with thorns like the Eu-
ropean bramble, were observed ; and in short, the whole
vegetation had a totally different aspect from that of Aus-
tralia, and a much greater resemblance to that of Europe
or Asia/'
These minutise, in the way of description of particular
localities, have a value for two reasons. In the first place
they are the only (or nearly the only) notices of the parts
in question. In the next, the parts themselves are im-
portant as belonging to the quarters where Australia and
New Guinea are nearest each other.
In the north of New Guinea, the fact that has most
struck inquirers has been the apparently peculiar style of
the buildings. These are of vast size, capable of con-
taining whole families, and often raised on piles. Hence,
as long as the existence of similar erections in Borneo*
was unknown, this form of domestic architecture passed
for one of the characteristics of the Negritos in opposition
to the Malays. At present, its diagnostic value is consi-
derably lowered.
Another industrial art exercised by the Kelsenonesians,
and (according to most writers), not exercised by the
unmixed Amphinesians, is the art of pottery. How far,
however, it is general on the one side, or non-existent on
the other, remains for further investigations to prove.
The qualification denoted by the word unmixed, will be
explained when we come to the ethnology of the Fiji
Islands.
NEW BRITAIN.
NEW IRELAND.
NEW HANOVER.
SANDWICH ISLE.
ADMIRALTY ISLANDS.
HERMIT ISLANDS.
* Sec page 1G8.
222 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
These islands have been mentioned in detail for the sake
of indicating the probable line of population — first to-
wards the east, and next (backwards) to the north-west.
Where any of the natives of these islands differ from one
another, or from the New Guinea people, it is in having
stronger limbs, lighter-coloured skins, hair more or less
woolly, and faces more or less angular. All the differences,
however, lie within a small compass. All the tribes,
too, seem to agree in chewing the betel-nut, going naked
(or nearly naked), and painting their bodies.
BOUKA.
BOUGAINVILLE ISLAND.
Natives. — Heads large, faces flat, chin prominent, mouth large, lips thin.
Muscles well-marked. — Labillardiere.*
SOLOMON'S ISLANDS.
Vocabulary. — From Port Praslin. — Voyage de V Astrolabe.
NITENDI, INDENDI, INDENNI.
Name. — Native.
Synonyms. — Santa Cruz, Egmont's Island.
Direction. — Nearly due east (not south) of Christoval, the most southern of
the Solomon Isles.
VANIKORO. (?)f
Description from Durmlle. — " We have already said
that the inhabitants of Vanikoro belong to the black race
of the Great Ocean. They may be considered as a variety
of that race of blacker colour than others, and of a con-
formation approaching more nearly to that of proper
Negroes. They are generally small and rather meagre.
What is most remarkable in their shape is an appearance
of lateral compression of the temples, produced by a very
arched forward protuberance of the middle part of the
* Prichard. Vol. v., p. 232.
•j- Denoting that by some writers the Vanikoro tribes have been placed in
another class. Their language has been considered as Polynesian rather than
Papua.
PAPUANS. 223
forehead. The hair does not advance low on the forehead,
and the care taken to throw it back renders all these parts
very visible. The cheek-bones being salient give the face
a greater developement than that of the cranium. Another
character not less remarkable is the small projection of the
nasal bones, which gives the nose an appearance of being
flattened at its root, and to the countenance a singular
resemblance to that of the orang utang. Owing to this the
orbital arch, itself prominent, appears still more projecting.
The nostrils are wide, and are rendered still more so by
the custom of wearing a stick fixed transversely through
the septum narium. The lower jaw is not remarkable.
The form of the forehead causes the facial angle to be not
particularly acute. The lobes of the ears are perforated by
a hole large enough to pass the hand through it. The
eyes are large, oval, and deeply set ; the balls salient,
round, and resembling in form and colour those of the
Negro. The lips are large, the chin small. The lower ex-
tremities are in some instances very lean, but tolerably
fleshy in others. The calf is rather high, and the heel is
in many individuals remarkably projecting, a character not
existing in the Polynesian race to the same extent. This is
another approximation to the Negro. The hair is crisp,
but although not cut, it never becomes bushed and matted.
They are nearly naked. The use of the betel-nut destroys
their teeth, and gives them a red tinge round the mouth.
The women are horribly ugly ; the old men are bald."
The position of Nitendi and Vanikoro gives them
interest.
a. Although not lying due south-east of the Solomon
Isles, and due north-east of the next Archipelago, they
form the insular continuity between the two groups.
b. Vanikoro is the Kelueiionesian Island, which, by its
224 KELjENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
vicinity, gives to* Tikopia, which is Polynesian, its pecu-
liarity of distribution.
Lastly, although the fact be not ethnological, the Vani-
koro cluster is the locality where La Perouse perished.
THE NEW HEBRIDES.
Particular islands —
ISLE OF LEPERS.
Synonym. — Australia del Espiritu Santo.
MALLICOLLO.
For each of these islands we have special evidence
— that of Bougainville and Cook — to the general Negrito
character of the natives. In the voyages of the latter
the ill-favoured monkey-like appearance of the Mallicol-
lese is prominently mentioned.
API.
Direction. — Continuation from Mallicollo to —
SANDWICH ISLE.
Direction, — Continuation from Api to —
ERROMANGO.
Erromango Native as described by Hales. — " He was
about five feet high, slender and long limbed. He had
close woolly hair, and retreating arched forehead, short
and scanty eyebrows, and small snub-nose, thick lips (espe-
cially the upper), a retreating chin, and that projection of
the jaws and lower part of the face, which is one of the
distinctive characteristics of the Negro race. His limbs
and body were covered with fine short hairs, made conspi-
cuous by their light colour. On his left side were many
small round cicatrices burnt into the skin, which he said
was a mode of marking common amongst his people.
Placed in a crowd of African blacks, there was nothing
* See p. 204.
PAPUANS. 225
about him by which he could have been distinguished from
the rest."— Vol. 6. p. 44.
TANNA.
A grammar of the Tanna language, the only one of the
Papua division that has ever been sufficiently known to
Europeans, was seen by Dr. Prichard —
" I have seen a grammar of the language of Tanna in
manuscript, written by the Rev. T. Heath, a missionary,
who resided in that island. It is much to be regretted
that this work has not been published. From this gram-
mar it appears that the language of Tanna is entirely dis-
tinct in character from the Polynesian. It abounds with
inflections and has four numbers, viz. singular, dual, trinal,
there being a particular form in the verb when three per-
sons are spoken of, which is distinct from the plural."
ANNATOM.
The direction of the Keleenonesian Islands now changes
from south-east to south-west.
THE LOYALTY ISLES.
NEW CALEDONIA.
With a general character like that of the islanders
already mentioned, Cook states that they are better-looking
than the Tanna people, and that they bury their dead like
the Australians. La Billardiere adds, that they are like
the Van Diemen's Land natives.
The whole of the Papua area will not have been ex-
hausted until we return to the parts described by Mr.
Jukes, on the south-eastern side of New Guinea. These
lead, in the way of geographical continuity, to —
LOUISIADE.
Of this Island I have seen no definite account. Such
notices, however, as I have met with, make the popu-
Q
226 KEL^NONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLTDJ1.
lation what we should expect it to be — Papua- Kelseno-
nesian.
THE FIJI (FEEJEE) ISLANDS. (?)
. Situation. — Eastward of the New Hebrides, the most eastern part of Kelaeno-
nesia. Westward of the Tonga isles, the most western part of Polynesia.
The physical conformation of the Fiji natives is Negrito
as well as Polynesian.
The language of the Fiji natives is more Polynesian
than Negrito.
The social institutions, manners, and customs of the
Fiji natives are partly Polynesian, partly Negrito, and
partly neither one nor the other.
These statements, combined with their geographical posi-
tion, give importance and prominence to the Fiji group
of islands. Fortunately our information concerning them
is not altogether disproportionate to the difficulties that
they introduce. The language has been investigated by
Mr. Norriss, whose trust-worthy opinion, adopted in the
present work, may be found, in extetiso, in the 5th volume
of Prichard.
The moral and physical features are exhibited in the fol-
lowing extract from the American Exploring Expedition : —
" The Feejeeans are a people of the medium stature,
with nearly as great variety of figure as is found in nations
of the Caucasian race. The chiefs are usually tall and
well formed, owing probably to the care taken of their
nurture, and to the influence of blood. The common peo-
ple are somewhat inferior, yet there are fewer small and
ungainly figures among them than among the lower orders
of Europeans. On the other hand, the Feejeeans contrast
very unfavourably with their neighbours of the Polynesian
stock. They lack the full rounded limbs and swelling
muscles which give such elegance to the forms of the
PAPUANS. 227
Friendly and Navigators Islanders. They are generally
large-jointed, and the calf is small in proportion to the
thigh. The neck is also too short for due proportion, and
the whole figure wants elegance and softness of outline.
Their movements and attitudes are, consequently, less easy
and graceful than those of the Polynesians. They are,
nevertheless, a strong race ; their war-clubs are ponderous,
and are wielded with great power, and they can carry very
heavy burdens.
" The Feejeean physiognomy differs from that of the
Polynesians, not so much in any particular feature, as in a
general debasement of the whole, and a decided approxima-
tion towards the forms characteristic of the Negro race.
The head is usually broad in the occipital region (which they
consider a great beauty), and narrows towards the top and
in front, — the forehead, though often of good height, ap-
pearing compressed at the sides. The eyes are black and
set rather deep, but never obliquely. The nose is not large,
and is generally a good deal flattened ; the nostrils are
often larger laterally than forwards, and the nose is then
much depressed at the upper part between the eyes. The
mouth is wide, and the lips, particularly the upper one,
thick. The chin varies, but is most commonly short and
broad. The jaws are larger, and the lower part of the
face far more prominent than in the Malay race. The
cheek-bones, also, project forwards as in the Negro, and
not laterally, as in the Mongol variety ; notwithstanding
which, the narrowness of the forehead at the temples gives
a greater width to the face at the malar portion than
elsewhere. The whole face is longer and thinner than
among the Polynesians. The hair is neither straight nor
woolly, but maybe properly designated as frizzled. When
allowed to grow without interference, it appears in nume-
Q 2
228 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
rous spiral locks, eight or ten inches in length, spreading
out on all sides of the head. Sometimes these curls are
seen much longer, falling down to the middle of the back.
It is, however, very seldom allowed to grow naturally.
The young boys have it cut very close, and sometimes
shaved to the skin, like the Tahitians. In girls, before
marriage, it is allowed to grow long, and is coloured white
by washing it with a solution of lime, except a portion
around the crown, which is plastered with a black pig-
ment. After marriage, it is either cut to the length of one
or two inches, or frizzled out like that of the men : in both
cases it is frequently soaked in colouring liquids, either red
or black. The men in general have their hair dressed so as
to form an immense semiglobular mass, covering the top,
back, and sides of the head. The arrangement of this cheve-
lure is performed for the chiefs by professional barbers, and
is a work of great labour. Six hours are sometimes occupied
in dressing a head ; and the process is repeated at intervals
of two or three weeks. It is probably to guard against
disarranging this work that the piece of bamboo which is
placed under the neck in sleeping is employed, instead of
the ordinary pillow. For the same purpose the natives
usually wear, during the day, a sola or kerchief, of very
thin gauze-like paper cloth, which is thrown over the hair
and tied closely around the head, so as to have very much
the appearance of a turban.
" The colour of the Feejeeans is a chocolate-brown, or a
hue mid-way between the jet-black of the Negro, and the
brownish yellow of the Polynesian. There are, however,
two shades very distinctly marked, like the blonde and
brunette complexions in the white race ; besides all the
intermediate gradations. In one of these shades the brown
predominates, and in the other the copper. They do not
AUSTRALIANS. 229
belong to distinct castes or classes, but are found indiscri-
minately among all ranks and in all tribes. The natives
are aware of the distinction, and call the lighter coloured
people, Viti ndamundamu, "red Feejeeans ;" but they do
not seem to regard it as anything which requires or admits
of explanation. These red-skinned natives must not be
confounded with the Tonga-Viti> or individuals of mixed
Tongan and Feejeean blood, of whom there are many on
some parts of the group."
Their ferocious and suspicious character is described in
very unfavourable terms ; to which it may be added, that
their cannibalism is undoubted, and that they are skilful
in the art of pottery — a fact of which the import has
already been noticed.
The problem that is suggested by the intermediate cha-
racter of the Fijis is manifest : it is the question as to
whether we have intermixture or transition. Further no-
tice, however, of this point, will stand over until the next
divisions have been disposed of.
THE AUSTRALIAN BRANCH OF THE KEL^ENONESIAN STOCK.
Area. — Australia.
Physical appearance. — Kelaenonesians with hair generally straight, or waved,
sometimes frizzy.
Fauna.- — Absence of ruminants and pachydermata.
Divisions. — 1. Australians. 2. Tasmanians (?).
The differences between the different Australian lan-
guages have long been known and definitely insisted upon.
Less marked differences in frame and physiognomy be-
tween the different Australian tribes, have also been long
known and definitely insisted upon.
Differences of customs and manners have been similarly
noticed and considered. Notwithstanding all this, how-
ever, there is no opinion more generally admitted than
the fundamental unity of the Australian population from
230 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID.E.
Swan River to Botany Bay, from the Gulf of Carpentaria to
Bass's Straits. Captain Grey, Schurman, Teichelman, and
all who have devoted average attention to the language,
have given their evidence to this ; and they have sup-
plied facts of various kinds, of their own collection, to-
wards the proof of it. No man is less inclined to disturb
this view than the present writer. In the Fourth Num-
ber of the Philological Transactions,* he enumerated the
whole of the vocabularies then known to him, and added
some short lists of the words wherein the more distant
ones agreed with each other. Thus a scanty vocabulary
from the Gulf of Carpentaria, which had seventeen words
in common with one from Endeavour River, had three
(perhaps four) identical.
ENGLISH. CARPENTARJAN. ENDEAVOUR RIVER.
Eye meal meul.
Hair marra inorye.
Fingers mingd mungal bah.
As the Endeavour River was the nearest point to the
Gulf of Carpentaria from which we possessed a voca-
bulary, the circumstance that no more than three words
out of seventeen coincided, was a good measure of the
extent to which the Australian dialects exhibited the
phenomenon of difference. Still the likeness, as far as it
went, was a fact to be admitted on the other side. Now,
if we go round the whole coast of Australia, and compare
the vocabulary from one point with the vocabulary of the
next known locality to it, we shall find that, allowing for
difference of distance, the similarity or dissimilarity is,
there or thereabouts, the similarity or dissimilarity be-
tween the two vocabularies just mentioned, i.e., that the
former is shown by the identity between a few funda-
* February 10, 1843.
AUSTRALIANS. 231
mental terms, the latter by a discrepancy between the
majority.
The comparison, however, of contiguous dialects — gives
but one series of facts. It merely shows that we can go all
round the island, and find that, of three dialects compared,
the last shall have a partial agreement with the second ; by
no means showing that such (or, indeed, that any) simi-
larity shall exist between the third and first. Neverthe-
less, for philological reasoning, such a similarity as the last
is required. This we get at by two methods, — firstly, by
comparing the vocabularies of distant points ; secondly, by
taking one, or more, particular vocabularies, and comparing
them with some, or all, of the others en masse. By each of
these processes, applied to Australian languages, we arrive
at the same conclusion. The second will be considered in
the sequel. A simple instance of the first is, that out of
sixty words from Jervis's Bay, compared with sixty from
Gulf St. Vincent, the following coincide :
ENGLISH. JKR VIS'S BAY. GULF ST. VINCENT.
Forehead holo ioullo.
Man mika meio.
Milk awanltain ammenhalo.
Tongue talen talein.
Hand maramale malla.
Nipple amgnann amma.
Nails berenou pere.
Premising now, that (as all the published grammars ex-
hibit an agglutinate structure) the evidence taken from the
grammatical character of the Australian languages is con-
firmatory rather than derogatory to the evidence taken
from the comparison of vocabularies, we come to a
fourth class of facts, viz., the extent to which two or more
Australian dialects agree or disagree with some third lan-
guage or class of languages ; and as this involves the still
more general question of the external relations of the
232 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
Australian languages as a class, its consideration will be
deferred for the present. At present it is sufficient to say
that it is affirmative to a fundamental unity of tongue.
The kind of evidence from which we predicate this
unity, is evidently of a cumulative kind ; and it is merely
the statement of its being of this sort that has been laid
before the reader : the details would require either a
larger volume than the present, or a special monograph.
It may also be added, that as the Australian tribes differ
more from one another in language than in any other
respect, it is the philological portion of their ethnography
that presents the most difficulties.
In respect to their manners, morals, and social customs,
the similarity, lying less below the surface than it does with
respect to their languages, has drawn less attention on the
part of investigators. Still the way in which it shows
itself is the same. Two neighbouring tribes shall differ
more than two distant ones : so that similar customs shall
re-appear in distant localities.
As to the physical conformation of the Australians, I
believe that it is so uniform throughout the island, that it
has never been made the basis of a division ; — indeed I am
inclined to believe that (like the ^similarity of language)
the similarity of external appearance has been over-rated ;
nevertheless, it is certain that there are deviations from
the general slim and underfed condition of the body ; and
(what is of more importance), from the usual straight cha-
racter of the hair. Such is the case, according to Mr.
Earle, with the trepang fishers of Arnhem Bay who are
bulky men, with broad chests, the lower extremities being
but indifferently formed, and the crooked shin being com-
mon. Then as to the hair — with the Jaako, or Croker Island
tribe, it is coarse and bushy (the whiskers being thick,
AUSTRALIANS. 233
and curly) and so short, crisp, and abundant about the
breast and shoulders as to conceal the skin ; whereas
on the other hand, the Oitbo, or Bidjenelumbo, have
straight silky hair, arched eyebrows, fair complexion, and
occasionally the oblique eye.
The lowest form of humanity has been sought for in
Australia, whilst the physical condition of the country and
the absence of those animals and herbs that supply human
food, have made it a likely quarter to exhibit it. Whether,
however, so low a rank in scale of human development
be, upon the whole, a fact or exaggeration, it is certain
that, upon several points, there has been considerable over-
statement. One sample of this sort is the accredited opi-
nion as to the absolute incapacity of the Australian of form-
ing even the rudest elements of a mythology — an opinion
which engenders the notion that their intellects are too
sluggish for even the evolution of a superstition.
That this was not the case was indicated some years
back by Captain Gray, and that there is some exponent of
the religious feeling in the shape of a rude form of shama-
nism, has been shown in the account of the American
Exploring Expedition ; where the first* published details
of the Australian mythology, if so it may be called, are
to be found — " It is not true, however, as has been fre-
quently asserted, that the natives have no idea of a Su-
preme Being, although they do not allow this idea to
influence their actions. The Wellington Tribes, at least,
believe in the existence of a Deity called Baiamai, who
lives on an island beyond the great sea to the East. His
food is fish, which come up to him from the water when
he calls to them. Some of the natives consider him the
maker of all things, while others attribute the creation of
* Vol. vi. p. 110.
234 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIDjE.
the world to his son Buramlin. They say of him, that
Baiamai spoke, and Burambin came into existence. When
the missionaries first came to Wellington, the natives used
to assemble once a year, in the month of February, to
dance and sing a song in honour of Baiamai. This song
was brought there from a distance by strange natives, who
went about teaching' it. Those who refused to join in
the ceremony were supposed to incur the displeasure of
the god. For the last three years the custom has been dis-
continued. In the tribe on Hunter's River, there was a
native famous for the composition of these songs or hymns ;
which, according to Mr. Threlkeld, were passed from tribe
to tribe, to a great distance, till many of the words be-
came at last unintelligible to those who sang them.
" Dararwirgal, a brother of Baiamai^ lives in the far
west. It was he who lately sent the small-pox among
the natives, for no better reason than that he was vexed
for want of a tomahawk. But now he is supposed to have
obtained one, and the disease will come no more. The Bd-
lumbal are a sort of angels, who are said to be of a white
colour, and to live on a mountain at a great distance to the
south-east : their food is honey, and their employment is to
do good ' like the Missionaries.'
" It is possible that some of these stories owe their origin
to intercourse with the whites, though the great unwilling-
ness which the natives always evince to adopt any customs
or opinions from them, militates against such a supposition.
But a being who is, beyond question, entirely the creation
of Australian imagination, is one who is called in the Wel-
lington dialect, Wandong ; though the natives have learned
from the whites to apply to him the name of devil. He is
an object not of worship, but merely of superstitious dread.
They describe him as going about under the form of a
AUSTRALIANS. 235
black man of superhuman stature and strength. He
prowls at night through the woods around the encamp-
ments of the natives, seeking to entrap some unwary wan-
derer, whom he will seize upon ; and, having dragged him
to his fire, will there roast and devour him. They attri-
bute all their afflictions to his malevolence. If they are ill,
they say Wandong has bitten them. No one can see this
being but the nurjarglr, or conjurors, who assert that they
can kill him, but that he always returns to life. He may,
however, be frightened away by throwing fire at him
(though this statement seems inconsistent with that re-
specting his invisibility), and no native will go out at night
without a firebrand to protect him from the demon.
" There is some difference in the accounts given of this
character. By the tribe of Hunter's River he is called
Koin or Koen. Sometimes, when the Blacks are asleep,
he makes his appearance, seizes upon one of them and car-
ries him off. The person seized endeavours in vain to cry
out, being almost strangled. At daylight, however, Koin
disappears, and the man finds himself conveyed safely to
his own fireside. From this it would appear that the
demon is here a sort of personification of the nightmare, —
a visitation to which the natives, from their habits of
gorging themselves to the utmost when they obtain a
supply of food, must be very subject.
" At the Muruya River the devil is called Tulugal, He
was described to us, by a native, as a black man of great
stature, grizzled with age, who has very long legs, so that
he soon overtakes a man ; but very short arms, which
brings the contest nearer an equality. This goblin has a
wife who is much like himself; but still more feared, being
of a cruel disposition, with a cannibal appetite, especially
for young children. It would hardly be worth while to
236 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID^E.
dwell upon these superstitions, but that they seem to cha-
racterise so distinctly the people, at once timid, ferocious,
and stupid, who have invented them.
" Their opinions with regard to the soul vary : some as-
sert that the whole man dies at once, and nothing is left of
him ; others are of opinion that his spirit still survives, but
upon this earth, either as a wandering ghost, or in a state
of metempsychosis, animating a bird or other inferior crea-
ture. But the most singular belief is one which is found
at both Port Stephens and Swan River, places separated
by the whole breadth of the Australian continent. This
is, that white people are merely blacks who have died,
passed to a distant country, and having there undergone
a transformation, have returned to their original homes.
When the natives see a white man who strongly resembles
one of their deceased friends, they give him the name of
the dead person, and consider him to be actually the same
being."
It is difficult to take an exact measure of the extent to
which one superstition is grosser than another ; — hence, all
that can be said respecting the Pantheon, of which Baia-
mai and Wandong are portions, is that it is as low in the
scale of mythologies as any that has fallen under the
notice of the writer. Still, those of the Blacks of the Ma-
laccan Peninsula, of Madagascar, and of parts of Africa,
are much on the same level.
No sound of s in the Australian languages. — The distri-
bution of the different elementary articulations over the
different languages of the earth, has not been sufficiently
studied to enable us to predicate anything concerning the
absence or presence of particular sounds, as a measure of
the perfection or imperfection of human speech ; neverthe-
less, it is clear that the power of pronouncing a number of
AUSTRALIANS. 237
elementary sounds sufficient to allow of that difference be-
tween word and word, which is necessary for clear and
precise language, is one of the great conditions of articulate
and distinct speech ; and hence, a language of which the
elementary sounds are too few, or one wherein the power of
combining them to their full extent, is wanting, is the expo-
nent of a low degree of humanity. Still more so would one
be wherein a large proportion of the sounds is inarticulate
— like the sound of the letter h in English, which is a mere
breathing rather than a true articulation. In respect to
this latter class of facts, the admission of inarticulate ele-
ments of speech, there are two only in the whole range of
language ; one of which is so common as to occur in almost
all the dialects of the world, the other is so rare as to
be found in one class of tongues only. These are, the
power of k as already stated, and the peculiar click which
will be noticed in the languages of Southern Africa.
The inability to combine articulations, which, when taken
singly, are sufficiently easy of pronunciation, is another sign
of deficiency of power over language, as an instrument, or
medium, and, in some form or other, it is a common
phenomenon ; e.g., the sound of s, and the sound of*tsh,
are pronounceable enough when taken singly; since we
can say shest, and we can say tsJiest. The combination,
however, of stsh is difficult — at least to English organs.
There is none such in our language ; yet it is a favourite
juxtaposition in the Slavonic tongues. Again, to a per-
son unused to comparative philology, it may seem strange
to be told that in the Finlandic dialects the combination of
any two consonants in the same syllable, is rare : and that
such words as stab, Sic., in order to become pronounceable
must be converted into setab, or estab, &c. Yet this
* As the ch in chest.
238 KELjENONESIAtf OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
inability to combine consonants with one another is, per-
haps, the rule rather than the exception in language.
Again, without admitting the notion of an aristocracy
amongst the elements of the alphabet, and calling sounds
like r and s the noble letters, just as gold and silver are
designated as the noble metals, we may ask whether their
absence in some of the more uncivilized languages, is not a
fact of some import in the natural history of Man. It
seems so to the present writer.*
V, These episodical observations, however, form a long pre-
lude to a very simple fact, viz.: that, as far as we are
enabled to make a negative statement, the sound of s,
wanting in many of the Polynesian dialects, is wanting in
all the Australian ones.
Incomplete numeration of the Australians. — The import
of an Australian having no more than the three, four, or
five first numerals, and being thereby as unable to count the
number of the fingers of his hands, as that of the hair of his
head, is less equivocal. It speaks, at once, to a minimum
amount of intellectual power. Nevertheless, the same in-
ability occurs elsewhere ; especially in certain languages
of South America. The only vocabulary of Australia,
where the numerals run beyond five, is that of King
George's Sound, as given in Mitchell's Australia.
The political constitution (if so it can be called) of the
Australians is preeminently simple, exhibiting a society of
families rather than of tribes ; and one of the facts con-
nected with the evidence in favour of the unity of the
Australian division of mankind is the remarkable distribu-
tion of families bearing the same name. The principal of
* A work of Purkinje on the distribution of the sounds in different languages,
I know only from the reference to it in Muller's Physiology. The beautiful
application of this by Professor Graves, of Dublin, will be noticed when speaking
of the ethnology of Ireland.
AUSTRALIANS. 239
these are the Ballaroke, the Tdondarup, the Ngotok, the
Nagarnook, the Nogonyuk, the Mongalung, and the Nar-
rangar."* Now, persons bearing one or the other of these
names, may be found in parts of the country five hundred
miles apart. Nor does this appear to be the effect of migra-
tion, since each tribe is limited by the jealousy of its
neighbours to its own hunting-ground, beyond which it
seldom passes.
Polygamy, in Australia, is what we find and expect
to find. The practice of circumcision is what we find,
perhaps, without expecting it. The habit of the children
taking the name of the mother, will occur again in the
south of India. The rule that a man cannot marry a
woman of his own family-name will also re-appear, and
that amongst the Indians of North America.
The Kobong* — " Each family among the Australians,
adopts some animal or plant, as a kind of badge or armo-
rial emblem, or, as they call it, its kobong. A certain
mysterious connection exists between a family and its
kobong, so that a member of the family will not kill an
animal, or pluck any plant of the species to which his
kobong belongs, except under particular circumstances.
This institution again, which in some respect resembles
the Polynesian tabu, though founded on a different prin-
ciple, has its counterpart in the customs of the native
Americans. Captain Gray observes, citing Mr. Gallatin,
that among the Hurons,f the first tribe is that of the
bear ; the two others, those of the wolf and turtle.
The Iroquois have the same divisions, and the turtle
family is divided into the great and little turtle. The
Sioux are named on a similar principle. According to
Major Long, one part of the superstition of these
* Captain Gray ; from Prichard. Vol. v. •(• Qu 9 — Delawares.
240 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MOKGOLIDJ!.
savages, consists in each man having some totem, or
favourite spirit, which he believes to watch over him.
The totem assumes the shape of some beast, and therefore
they never kill or eat the animal whose form they sup-
pose their totem to bear."
" The ceremony of initiation. — When the boys arrive at
the age of puberty (or about fourteen), the elders of a
tribe prepare to initiate them into the duties and privi-
leges of manhood. Suddenly, at night, a dismal cry is
heard in the woods, which the boys are told is the
Bubu calling for them. Thereupon all the men of the
tribe (or rather of the neighbourhood) set off for some
secluded spot previously fixed upon, taking with them
the youths who are to undergo the ceremony. The exact
nature of this is not known, except that it consists of
superstitious rites, of dances representing the various
pursuits in which men are engaged, of sham fights, and
trials designed to prove the self-possession, courage, and
endurance of the neophytes. It is certain, however, that
there is some variation in the details of the ceremony,
in different places ; for among the coast tribes, one
of these is the knocking out of an upper front tooth,
which is not done at Wellington, and farther in the in-
terior. But the nature and object of the institution
appear to be everywhere the same. Its design unques-
tionably is, to imprint upon the mind of the young man,
the rules by which his future life is to be regulated ; and
some of these are so striking, and, under the circum-
stances, so admirable, that one is inclined to ascribe them
to some higher state of mental cultivation than now
prevails among the natives. Thus, the young men, from
the time they are initiated, till they are married, are
forbidden to approach or speak to a female. They must
AUSTRALIANS. 241
encamp at a distance from them at night, and if they see
one in the way, must make a long detour to avoid her.
Mr. Watson told me that he had often been put to great
inconvenience in travelling through the woods, with a
young man for his guide, as such a one could never be
induced to approach an encampment where there were
any women. The moral intent of this regulation is
evident.
" Another rule requires the young men to pay implicit
obedience to their elders. As there is no distinction of
rank among them, it is evident that some authority of
this kind is required, to preserve the order and harmony
of social intercourse.
"A third regulation restricts the youth to certain articles
of diet. They are not allowed to eat fish, or eggs, or
the emu, or any of the finer kinds of opossum and kangaroo.
In short, their fare is required to be of the coarsest and
most meagre description. As they grow older, the re-
strictions are removed, one after another ; but it is not till
they have passed the period of middle age that they are
entirely unrestrained in the choice of food. Whether one
purpose of this law be to accustom the young men to a
hardy and simple style of living may be doubted ; but its
prime object and its result certainly are to prevent the
young men from possessing themselves, by their superior
strength and agility, of all the more desirable articles of
food, and leaving only the refuse to the elders.
" 2. The ceremony of marriage, which, among most
nations, is considered so important and interesting, is with
this people one of the least regarded. The woman is looked
upon as an article of property, and is sold or given away
by her relatives without the slightest consideration of her
own pleasure. In some cases she is betrothed, or rather
R
242 KEL.ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIDjE.
promised, to her future husband in the childhood of both ;
and in this case, as soon as they arrive at a proper age, the
young man claims and receives her. Some of them have
four or five wives, and in such a case, they will give one to
a friend who may happen to be destitute. Notwithstand-
ing this apparent laxity, they are very jealous, and resent
any freedom taken with their wives. Most of their quar-
rels relate to women. In some cases, the husband who
suspects another native of seducing his wife, either kills or
severely injures one or both of them. Sometimes the
affair is taken up by the tribe, who inflict punishment after
their own fashion. The manner of this is another of the
singularities of their social system.
" 3. When a native, for any transgression, incurs the
displeasure of his tribe, their custom obliges him to " stand
punishment," as it is called; that is, he stands with a
shield, at a fair distance, while the whole tribe, either
simultaneously or in rapid succession, cast their spears at
him. Their expertness generally enables those who are
exposed to this trial to escape without serious injury,
though instances occasionally happen of a fatal result.
There is a certain propriety even in this extraordinary
punishment, as it is very evident that the accuracy and
force with which the weapons are thrown will depend very
much upon the opinion entertained of the enormity of the
offence.
" When the quarrel is between two persons only, and
the tribe declines to interfere, it is sometimes settled by a
singular kind of duello. The parties meet in presence of
their kindred and friends, who form a circle round them
as witnesses and umpires. They stand up opposite one
another, armed each with a club about two feet long. The
injured person has the right of striking the first blow, to
AUSTRALIANS. 243
receive which the other is obliged to extend his head for-
ward, with the side turned partially upwards. The blow
is inflicted with a force commensurate with the vindictive
feeling of the avenger. A white man, with an ordinary
cranium, would be killed outright, but, owing to the great
thickness of their skulls, this seldom happens with the
natives. The challenged party now takes his turn to strike,
and the other is obliged to place himself in the same
posture of convenience. In this way the combat is con-
tinued, with alternate buffets, until one of them is stunned,
or the expiation is considered satisfactory.
" 4. What are called wars among them may more pro-
perly be considered duels (if this word may be so applied)
between two parties of men. One or more natives of
a certain part of the country, considering themselves ag-
grieved by the acts of others in another part, assemble
their neighbours to consult with them concerning the pro-
per course to be pursued. The general opinion having
been declared for war, a messenger or ambassador is sent
to announce their intention to the opposite party. These
immediately assemble their friends and neighbours, and all
prepare for the approaching contest. In some cases, the
day is fixed by the messenger, in others not ; but, at all
events, the time is well understood.
" The two armies (usually from fifty to two hundred
each) meet, and after a great deal of mutual vituperation,
the combat commences. From their singular dexterity in
avoiding or parrying the missiles of their adversaries, the
engagement usually continues a long time without any fatal
result. When a man is killed (and sometimes before), a
cessation takes place ; another scene of recrimination,
abuse, and explanation ensues, and the affair commonly
terminates. All hostility is at an end, and the two parties
R 2
244 KELJENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
mix amicably together, bury the dead, and join in a
general dance.
*' 5. One cause of hostility among them, both public and
private, is the absurd idea which they entertain, that no
person dies a natural death. If a man perishes of disease,
at a distance from his friends, his death is supposed to have
been caused by some sorcerer of another tribe, whose life
must be taken for satisfaction. If, on the other hand, he
dies among his kindred, the nearest relative is held respon-
sible. A native of the tribe at Hunter's Eiver, who served
me as a guide, had not long before beaten his own mother
nearly to death, in revenge for the loss of his brother, who
died while under her cure. This was not because he had
any suspicions of her conduct, but merely in obedience to
the requirements of a senseless custom." *
In the notice of the physical appearance of the natives
ofWaigiu and Rawack (p. 212), the statement that the
molar portion of the alveolar arch is thick, is printed in
Italics. This was for the sake of preparing the reader for
an observation of Professor Owen's upon a peculiarity of
the structure of the teeth of the tribes in question.
a. In the second upper molar, the connate character of
the lateral fangs, which is common in Europeans, is ex-
tremely exceptional in Australians.
3. In the third upper molar three separate and well-
developed fangs, exceptional with the European, are normal
with the Australian.
THE TASMANIAN BRANCH OF THE KELJ1NONESIAN STOCK.
Area. — Van Dieman's Land.
Physical appearance, — Negritos, with curly, frizzy, or woolly hair ; i.e., with
the character of the Papua, but not within the Papua geographical area.
* United States' Exploring Expedition, vol. vi.
TASMAKIANS.
245
The native population is nearly extinct ; and but few
specimens exist of their language.
Fig. 8.
It fell into, at least, four dialects — mutually unintelli-
gible : probably into more.
Writers who are not, otherwise, over-prone to exaggerate
differences, have separated the Tasmanians from the Aus-
tralians ; and this arrangement is followed in the present
work. The physical difference is chiefly that of the hair.
The language, as far as the imperfect vocabularies have
allowed me to examine it, has fewer affinities with the
246 KELjENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
southern dialects of Australia than even the known amount
of dissimilarity between fundamentally allied languages
prepares us for.
Furthermore — it was my impression, that such phi-
lological affinities as existed were with New Caledonia
rather than Australia. If so, the philology and the phy-
sical appearance go together ; and the Tasmanian popula-
tion came round Australia rather than across it.
The present position, therefore, of the Tasmanians is
provisional.
• • * * *
Necdum finitus Orestes. — There are two other Negrito
localities ; which, geographically speaking, are scarcely
Amphiuesian, and not at all Kelsenonesian. From the
latter area they lie wholly apart. With the Protonesian
portion of Amphiuesia they are less disconnected ; indeed
they seem, at first, to form a prolongation of the northern
extremity of Sumatra.
I allude to two groups in the portion of the Bay of
Bengal, on the Siamese side, almost parallel with the line
of the continent, and forming a series of stepping-stones
from Cape Negrais, in the Mon country, to the Malay
island of Sumatra.
These are — 1 . The Andaman Islands. 2. The Nicobar
Islands.
THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS.
Native name of the inhabitants, — Mincopie.
Nearest point of the Continent. — Cape Negrais.
Language. — Apparently not monosyllabic. Not considered to be Protonesian.
Native Fauna. — Rats, hogs, dogs.
Religion and habits. — Pagan cannibals. — Lieutenant Colebrook's Asiatic Re-
searclies, vol. iv.
Physical appearance. — Colour extremely dark, perhaps black. Heads woolly,
lips thick, noses flat. Stature small, limbs ill-formed and slender, bellies pro-
minent.
NICOBARIANS. 247
Little as the Andamans, from the ferocious character of
the inhabitants, are known, they are noticed by the Ara-
bian travellers of the twelfth century, and also by Marco
Polo ; the early accounts being quite as unfavourable as
the late ones. " Angaman is a very large island, not
governed by a king. The inhabitants are idolaters, and
are a most brutish and savage race, having heads, eyes,
and teeth resembling those of the canine species. Their
dispositions are cruel, and every person, not being of their
own nation, whom they can lay hands on, they kill and
eat." — Marco Polo, Marsden's Translation.
THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.
Locality. — Between the Andamans and Sumatra.
Nicobar. — Inhabitants copper-coloured, with oblique
eyes, yellowish sclerotica, small flat noses, large mouth,
thick lips, and black teeth ; under-sized. Hair strong and
black ; beard scanty. Ears large and perforated. Occi-
pito-frontal profile brakhykephalic, the hinder part of the
head being flat and compressed.
The Nicobars are the people who, from the year A.D.
1647, until a recent period, had the credit of having tails,
like those of cats, which they moved in a similar manner.
This arose from a mistake of Keoping, a Swede, who mis-
took for a caudal appendance a stripe of cloth hanging
down behind. That there is no real prolongation of the
os coccygis is expressly stated by Fontana. The people
now supposed to present this anatomical peculiarity are a
tribe from the interior of Africa.
The evidence of Keoping as to the cannibalism of the
Nicobarians is more conclusive than his assertion as to their
tails. Having " sent a boat on shore with five men, who
did not return at night, as expected, the day following a
248 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID.E.
larger boat was sent, well manned, in quest of their com-
panions, who, it was supposed, had been devoured by the
savages, their bones having been found strewed on the
shore, the boat taken to pieces, and the iron of it carried
away."
Their huts are raised from the ground, and entered by
a ladder ; inhabited by more families than one, and orna-
mented with boar-skulls. Marriages are easily formed,
and easily dissolved. * The dead are buried; and for every
person that dies a cocoa-nut tree is cut down ; and his
name is never afterwards mentioned.
The changes of the moon are productive of their great
festivities ; and it is by these only that they reckon ; seven
to each monsoon. At the beginning of the north-east
monsoon a brisk trade, carried on by means of large canoes,
begins with the other islands. The extent of this, and the
amount to which it has introduced European articles of
commerce is considerable; indeed, in the Carnicobar
Island the Portuguese has partially become a lingua
franca.
The habit of artificially flattening the back of the head
is of more importance. It is a custom " to compress with
their hands the occiput of the new-born child, in order to
render it flat. By this method the hair remains close to
the head, as nature intended it, and the upper fore-teeth
very prominent out of the mouth." This is, apparently,
so exclusively an American custom that its presence here
is remarkable ; and it is equally remarkable that the only
other approach to it, is to be found in these parts. It is
mentioned as being a practice of certain Arakan tribes.
The most characteristic disease is the Cochin-leg, a form
* Parum fecundae mulieres ; apud quas quinta Lucina rarissimum. Viri incul-
pantur ; quorum Venus plerumque praecox et effraena, ebrietas perpetua.
NICOBARIANS. 249
of elephantiasis ; arising, perhaps, from the extent to which
their aliment is either fish or pork, to the exclusion of
other sorts of animal food. Instances, too, of longevity,
are said to be rare.
Malabar and Bengal settlers to a considerable extent
make the Nicobarians a mixed, rather than a pure popu-
lation.
Carnicobar. — Inhabitants well made, but undersized,
with Malay features.
Chowry.* — South of Carnicobar. Trade between the
Chowrians and Carnicobarians ; the former selling canoes,
the latter cloth.
Nancowry is described by Marco Polo, as being under
the government of no king, the people being " little
removed from the condition of brutes, all of them both
males and females going naked, without a covering to any
part of the body. They are idolaters." -f*
One of the most remarkable of their customs is the way
in which they celebrate the anniversary of the burial of any
near relation, when " their houses are decorated with gar-
lands of flowers, fruits, and branches of trees. The people
of each village assemble, dressed in their best attire, at the
principal house in the place, where they spend the day in
a convivial manner ; the men, sitting apart from the wo-
men, smoke tobacco and intoxicate themselves, while the
latter are nursing their children, and employed in prepara-
tions for the mournful business of the night. At a certain
hour of the afternoon, announced by striking the coung,
the women set up the most dismal howls and lamentations,
which they continue without intermission till about sun-
set ; when the whole party gets up, and walks in proces-
sion to the burying-ground. Arrived at the place, they
* Zoffany ; Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. t Marsden's Translation, p. 619.
250 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
form a circle around one of the graves, when the stake,
planted exactly over the head of the corpse, is pulled up.
The woman who is nearest of kin to the deceased, steps
out from the crowd, digs up the skull, and draws it up with
her hands. At sight of the bones, her strength seems to
fail her ; she shrieks, she sobs, and tears of anguish abun-
dantly fall to the mouldering object of her pious care. She
clears it from the earth, scrapes off the festering flesh, and
laves it plentifully with the milk of fresh coco-nuts, sup-
plied by the bystanders ; after which she rubs it over with
an infusion of saffron, and wraps it carefully in a piece of
new cloth. It is then deposited again in the earth, and
covered up ; the stake is replanted, and hung with the
various trappings and implements belonging to the de-
ceased. They proceed then to the other graves, and the
whole night is spent in repetitions of these dismal and
disgustful rites." •}•
******
By referring to p. 209, the reader will find that three
questions connected with the distribution of the Polyne-
sians— and, through them, with that of the Oceanic tribes,
altogether stand over for consideration ; these being —
A. The general question, as to their origin and distri-
bution in respect to their connection with the Continent,
and with each other. B. The date of the migrations,
c. The inferences to be drawn from the existence of a
darker-coloured population in areas more especially be-
longing to the brown and olive-coloured tribes.
A. Connection with the Continent of (1) The Kelseno-
nesians, (2) The Polynesians.
1 . A. Of the Papua Keleenonesians. — The Papuans of New
Guinea are, more probably, a continuation of the popula-
t Asiatic Researches, vol. iv. p. 131.
ORIGIN OF POPULATION. 251
tion of the Eastern Moluccas than aught else. This is
what their geographical position indicates ; and (such
being the case) it is the primd facie doctrine. At the
same time, they are a continuation of the black or black-
like portion of the Moluccan area, rather than of the
Mahometan Malays. The chief difference lies in the tex-
ture of the hair, a difference which has, most likely, been
over-rated.
B. Of the Australian Keltenonesians. — The a priori
view as to the source of the Australian population is com-
plicated, as may be understood by looking at the distance
between Cape York and New Guinea on one side, and
that between Cape Van Dieman and Timor on the other.
The difference in breadth between the interspaces of ocean
in these two parts is nearly the same : that, however, of
Torres Straits is the smaller; — besides which, there is a
numerous series of islands which would serve as stepping-
stones to emigrants from New Guinea ; assuming that
to be the line. Now as it is a general rule to derive the
population of islands forming part of a series from the
nearest inhabited point between the area under considera-
tion and the Continent, unless reasons can be shown to
the contrary, the apparent primd facie view is in favour of
the south of New Guinea having peopled the north of
Australia. Nevertheless, it not only is highly probable
that such is not the case, but it is by no means certain that,
all conditions considered, it is a correct view even a priori.
In many instances those reasons for believing that one
particular island has supplied a population to another,
which are based on the principle of simple contiguity, are
modified by the relations of the supposed immediate source
of population to the supposed remote one ; in which case,
although the land and sea conditions between the two
252 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIDjE.
last links of the chain may be of the most favourable kind,
those between the last link but one and the first, may be
the contrary. Thus, in the case before us, the fact of
Torres Straits being the narrowest portion of Ocean be-
tween Australia and the inhabited land, on the side of the
continent next to it, taken by itself, constitutes a reason
for deriving the Australians from the Papuans. It is
complicated, however, by the circumstance of the line
between New Guinea and the Continent being by no
means of the most direct and straight-forward sort.
Hence, if there were any other point of inhabited land
which should at one and the same time be not much
farther from some part of Australia than New Guinea is
from Cape York, and much nearer the remote source (as-
sumed to be on the Continent) of the Australian popu-
lation, such a locality would divide with New Guinea the
claims for having been the immediate origin of the occu-
pants of the great island in question ; inasmuch as the
slight difference between the favourable conditions of one
kind, would counterbalance the preponderating conditions
of another.
Now such a locality is really found in the case before us
in the relations already noticed between the north-east
point of Timor and Cape Van Diemen ; so that, upon tli'e
whole, the a priori views are as much in favour of the
Timor range of islands, being the connecting link between
Australia and the Continent, as they are in favour of
New Guinea being so.
The distinction just indicated is of more importance,
as illustrative of a general principle, than as a fact affect-
ing the particular point in question. The special facts of
the case are, in the mind of the present writer, in favour
of Timor and not New Guinea, having been the quarter
OKIGIN OF POPULATION. 253
from whence Australia was peopled, the particular part
of the Timorian stock being, of course, the darker, wilder,
and, apparently, more ancient tribes of the west and of
the interior.
2. Of the Polynesians. — In investigating the relations
between Polynesia and the Continent, with an exclusive
view to the land-and-sea conditions between the different
portions of the connecting series of islands, we should at
once derive the population of the Eastern Archipelagoes
from the islands which lay nearest to them on the west,
and so proceed until we came to the Samoan Archipelago,
to the Tonga group, or to the Fijis. These we' should
connect with the New Hebrides, or Solomon^s Isles, and
these last with New Guinea, the Moluccas, and the Con-
tinent. We should then assume a spread of the popu-
lation, as far to the North and East as it had been found
to occur westwards ; and so derive the Micronesians
from the northern Polynesians. We should not be afraid
of even deriving the people of the Pelew Islands from
the same quarter ; the similarity of language and habits
having already been recognised, and the distance between
the Pelews and the nearest portion of Protonesia being
greater than (or at least as great as) any interspace of
ocean between Polynesia and the Continent. I say that
this is what we should do if we looked exclusively to the
discovery of that line of connexion where the land-and-sea
conditions should be the most favourable ; in other words,
where the interspaces of sea should be the smallest.
Nevertheless, in so doing we should, probably, commit
an error in our inference, and certainly violate a prin-
ciple in our method; a principle which has been sug-
gested in a previous* part of the present Volume, and
* Page 185.
254 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIDJL
which is founded upon the circumstance of the population
of the line of the Papuan Islands, being not Amphinesian
but Negrito : so that the ethnological continuity, and the
geographical continuity, disagree ; a fact which throws us
upon a line of greater geographical, but of less ethnological
complexity ; and in favour of which the probabilities arise
out of a composition of the conflicting difficulties. This
is the line from either the Philippines, or the northern
Moluccas to the Pelews (via Lord North's Isle, Sonsoral,
or Johannes I.), the cluster of Goulou, the cluster of
Yap, the Egoy Isles, the Lamoursek and Satawal groups ;
the Proper Caroline group, the Chains of Ralik, and Ra-
dak, the Tarawan group, the Navigators'" Isles or Samoan
Archipelago.
Now the Samoan Archipelago is very nearly the point
from which we should have derived the proper Polyne-
sian population, had we taken the course of the Papuan
islands; so that it constitutes a point wherein the two
lines meet. Hence, if upon historical, philological, or any
other points of external evidence, we gave a preference to
the Samoan Archipelago, over the Tonga group, as
the source of the population for other parts of Polynesia
Proper, we should reduce the general question as to the
original of South Pacific islanders to that of the origin
of the Samoans. This, however, is a matter of detail, of
less importance than the recognition of the necessity of
making the geographical continuity of the chain which
connects the Polynesians with the Continent, agree with
the ethnological. This can only be done by deriving the
Polynesian population from Micronesia. In this case the
stream of migration goes round the Kelsenonesian area,
and not across it.
The rule of taking, as lines of insular migration, those
ORIGIN OF POPULATION. 255
series where the maximum interspaces of ocean are the
smallest, has already been twice insisted on, and in both
cases it has been qualified by the indication of particular
reasons, which might, in certain cases, lead us to depart
from it. These reasons have not been exhibited in detail.
Two sorts, however, of them have occurred, as it were
spontaneously, i.e., in the natural course of our investiga-
tions. These showed themselves, first in the preference
given to Timor over New Guinea, as the origin of the
Australian population ; and next, in the case of Poly-
nesia, just discussed. A third sort will now present itself,
i.e., the effect of winds and currents ; since it is clear that
it is easier to pass over a large interspace of sea with
wind and current (one or both) in your favour, than
over a small one with either one or both against you.
The prevailing winds in the Pacific are against a line
of insular migration, being from west to east, at all ; since
for three fourths of the year they blow from America
towards Amphinesia rather than from Amphinesia to
America.
Valeat quantum. All that can possibly be got would
be a chance of three to one in favour of an American
origin for the Polynesians, provided that all other condi-
tions were equal. But this is not the case ; the a priori
probabilities are neutralized by a vast difference in the
maximum interspaces of ocean, and by the non-American
character of both Micronesia and Polynesia.
It is most likely, then, that Polynesia Proper was
peopled from Micronesia, and Micronesia from either the
Philippines or the Moluccas.
c. The date of the migrations. This is either relative
or absolute : relative when we ascertain whether one
division of the Oceanic populations migrated before or
256 KELjENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLID.E.
after another ; absolute when we fix the chronolo-
gical date of a migration. As a general rule the latter
is unattainable — Iceland and a few other areas, peopled
within the historical period, forming the exceptions.
Respecting, then, the absolute date of the Polynesian
migration, there is no reason why it should not be known
in particular islands ; for instance, in the Dangerous
Archipelago, where only a small proportion of the clusters
is peopled even at present, any given island may receive
a population so late as this, the eleventh hour of the
extension of the human species ; yet it is evident that the
knowledge of such a migration would throw but little
light upon the broader question of the date of the Poly-
nesian population en masse. Of this it may safely be
said, that no important group has received its first occu-
pants within the Polynesian historical period. This, how-
ever, is but a short one.
Will the longer range of the traditionary period supply
any such information ? I think not. Nevertheless it must
be added, that in Nukahiva pedigrees run up to the eighty-
fifth generation, the founders of them being connected
with the first occupancy of the island. Even, however, if
we admit so long a genealogy as an historical fact, it only
gives the date for one particular island.
Proper ethnological reasoning is, from its very nature,
inapplicable to the investigation of a definite epoch in
chronology ; since it only begins where the evidence of
testimony ends. Furthermore, it is only approximate,
since it simply calculates, by means of an imperfect in-
duction, the minimum period required to account for
differences ; and the maximum period that will account
for resemblances ; e.g. for the Polynesians to differ as they
do from the Micronesian, a certain time must have
ORIGIN OF THE POPULATION. 257
elapsed ; and for them to differ no more than they do,
that time must have a limit.
Applied to the relative date of the Oceanic migra-
tions, ethnological reasoning gives for even the most recent
of them, a geological rather than an historical epoch ; and
this is as much as it is safe to say. Its other probable
conclusions are more definite.
1 . Occupancy had begun in Australia before migration
across Torres Strait had commenced in New Guinea.
2. Occupancy had begun in New Guinea before Poly-
nesian migration had commenced in Protonesia. The first
of these facts we infer from the physical differences be-
tween the Australian and the Papuan, taken with the
fact that it is scarcely likely that the Papuans of Torres
Straits would have failed in extending themselves to Aus-
tralia had that island been unoccupied.
The second is an inference from the diversion of the
Protonesian population from New Guinea to the Micro-
nesian line, since the best reason that can be assigned for
the Protonesians not having taken possession of the
Papuan isles, is to be found in the assumption that they
were previously inhabited.
This brings us to the third question, as to the import
of the darker coloured populations in areas more especially
belonging to the brown and olive-coloured tribes. — I do not
see how we can consider these as aught else but the lighter-
coloured populations in a ruder stage of society; since
unless we take this view we must look upon them as the
representatives of a separate section of the human kind ;
a supposition against which there are the two following
objections.
a. That the difficulties respecting the population of the
Polynesian area are just doubled by such an assumption ;
258 KEL^ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIDjE.
since instead of having to account for the undoubted Poly-
nesians alone (a matter quite difficult enough of itself)
we should then have to account for an earlier migration of
Negritos as well.
5. That if such a previous migration had taken place,
we should expect to find — considering the vast number of
Polynesian islands — at least one island where the blacker
race remained unmixed, and (as such) speaking the original
non-polynesian language, which is implied in the assumed
independence of origin ; since it is exceedingly unlikely
that a second migration should have so nearly coincided
with a former one as to people and leave unpeopled ex-
actly the same areas. Now out of all the isles of the
South Sea none presents the phenomenon of a pure black
population, as determined by the double test of colour and
of language.
On the other hand, it may be urged — a. That, although
it may be • a matter of doubt with competent judges whe-
ther improved physical and social conditions have so great
an influence upon the colour of the skin and the texture
of the hair as is imagined by some extreme thinkers on
the point, it is generally admitted that they have some
influence.
b. That in some groups (and sometimes in particular
islands) the identity of the darker and lighter-coloured
population is beyond a doubt ; coinciding, as it does, with
such differences.
c. That transitional forms occur where it is wholly
gratuitous to assume the influence of intermixture.
With this opinion our view of the relations between the
continuous Kelsenonesian areas and the areas of the mixed
population would be as follows : —
a. That at a period anterior to the development of the
ORIGIN OF THE POPULATION. 259
proper Malay and Polynesian characters of the typical
Protonesiaus, New Guinea and Australia were peopled from
the Moluccas and Timor respectively ; the immigrants
having a type which might lose or gain Kelaenonesiau
characters according to circumstances.
b. That the conditions of Protonesia and Polynesia
favoured the change from dark to fair ; those of New
Guinea and Australia from fair to dark.
I will now add a remark of Mr. Blaxland from Mr.
Jukes's Voyage of the Fly, which will further illustrate
this position : — " The geographical boundary of the Papuan
islander is precisely coincident with that of the north- west
monsoon. This wind, from the months of November to
March inclusive, is the prevalent one over all the space
extending from the equator to 10° or 15° south latitude,
and in longitude from Sumatra to the Fejee Islands. It
is sometimes experienced to the west of Sumatra as far as
the north of Madagascar, and it sometimes also extends to
the east of the Fejee Islands into the Pacific Ocean ; but
these extensions are irregular, and its usual eastern boun-
dary is precisely that of the Papuan race before described.
Mr. Blaxland deduces from this fact, coupled with the
little skill of that race in navigation, the inference, that
they have travelled from the west into the Pacific Ocean,
and extended their migration only as far as the monsoon
allowed them." *
This gives us the following theory : —
1. That Kelsenonesia was peopled when navigation was
so much in its infancy as for the Protonesians to be limited
in their migrations by the north-west monsoon.
2. That Polynesia was peopled when it was sufficiently
advanced for the same people to be independent of it.
« Vol. ii. p. 251.
s'2
26'0 KEL.EXONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLHhE.
3. That the differentiae, between the lighter and darker
Protonesians is referable to the influences of Asiatic civili-
zation.
The observations of Mr. Blaxland, taken along with the
colour of the people, lead to the inference that the Fijis
were peopled from Kelaenonesia. The language, however,
is against this. The conflict of difficulties is best recon-
ciled by considering them a mixed race ; of which the
older element belongs to the line of population which sup-
plied Kelsenonesia with its inhabitants, the newer to the
Polynesian system.
If this view be unsatisfactory we must consider them
as members of the darker Polynesian population, with
its differential characteristics at their maximum — a view
probable enough of itself, but rendered suspicious by the
fact of its occurring so precisely in the neighbourhood
of Kelsenonesia.
That they form a true transition between the Kelaeno-
nesians and Polynesians, as a continuation of a line of
population from the New Hebrides to Polynesia, is of all
views the most improbable.
In the opinion of the present writer, the Fiji Islands
are the localities where the stream of population which
went round New Guinea met, and amalgamated with the
extremity of the line that came across that country ; the
antagonism between the evidence of the language, the
evidence of the physical conformation being the effect of
the intermixture.
Respecting the ethnological relations of the Andaman
and Nicobarian islanders, I am not prepared with an
opinion.
* *****
The following facts connected with the Polynesian Ian-
ORIGIN OF THE POPULATION. 261
guages, are laid before the reader, less for the sake of
enlarging the list of Polynesian peculiarities than as a
preparation for certain philological phenomena, which
will occur in the ethnology of America, and with the
view of showing a process by which language, over and
above the changes which are brought about by natural
changes, may be modified artificially — a point upon which
we have few data, but plenty of extreme opinions.
Ceremonial language of parts of Polynesia. — The Sa-
moans, ceremonious to each other, are preeminently so
towards their chiefs ; one of their methods of showing
respect being to eschew certain words in common use,
when addressing a superior, and to substitute for them
others, which are considered more refined. Hence, a
careful speaker will never address a higher personage
in the terms appropriate to an inferior one. To a common
man, on entering a house, the salutation is ua mai — t/ou
have come.
To a householder, ua alala mai.
To a low chief, ua malui mai.
To a high chief, ua susu mai.
To the sovereign, ua afio mai.
In Tonga there are traces of a second order of ceremo-
nial synonyms ; i.e. over and above those ordinarily in
use, there is a series for the particular divine chief
Tiutonga.*
CEREMONIAL. TIUTONGA. COMMON. ENGLISH.
Fofonga langi mata -face.
Ilo taumafa kai eat.
Matnata taka tio see.
Ofai hala mate dead.
Tengitangi buluhi mahaki sick.
Toka tofa moe sleep.
* See p. 1 93.
262 KEL.ENONESIAN OCEANIC MONGOLIA.
In Tahitian, an excessively figurative manner of speech
is said to supersede the proper system of ceremonial
synonyms, the houses of the chief being the clouds of
heaven ; his canoe-, the rainbow ; his voice, the thunder,
and so on.
The names too of the chiefs are almost always significant,
and almost always compound, and, in some cases, they run
to a very considerable length, as Tai-ma-le-langi =. sea and
sky; Tau-i-te-ao-bu — suspended in the Hue heavens ; Ta-lana-
tupu-a-pal-ta-lani-nui = the sJcy increasing and striking the
great heaven. Now the owners of any such names as
these are supposed to be complimented by the Tahitians
ceasing to employ, in the language of their daily inter-
course, one, or more, of the words which formed parts of
them ; so that, in the case of Tai-ma-le-langi, the syl-
lables tai, mai, le, or langi, are lost to the common lan-
guage, until the death of the chief, so designated. After
his decease, however, they return to the language. In this
way, between the voyages of Cook and Vancouver, no less
than forty or fifty words had been superseded by new ones :
indeed, of the first ten numerals, four are now different
from what they were in Cook's time.
ORIGINAL FORM. PRESENT FORM.
2. Rua piti.
4. Ha malm.
5. Rima pae.
6. Ono fene.
Note 1 . — Since the notice of the Fiji Islands was written
a youth of that group — i.e. from the island of Lafu — has
been brought over to England by Mr. James Boyd, been
presented at the Ethnological Society, and is now in Lon-
don. The most remarkable point is a reddish tinge,
clearly perceptible under a cross light, in his otherwise
ORIGIN OF THE POPULATION. 263
black and frizzy hair. If I am right in referring this
shade to the use of alkaline washes used in youth for the
purposes of whitening the hair, it shows the unsafeness of
talking about naturally red hair for any of Oceanic
islands ; since, in the case in question, it was upwards of
five years since any alkaline wash had been applied.
*****
Note 2. — In^. 184. I have overstated the extent to
which the notion that Polynesia Proper was peopled
from Kelsenonesia rather than from Micronesia was gene-
ral. Although not found (as far as I know) in any of
the systematic works on the subject of human migration,
it is by no means singular. It is the opinion of Mr.
Norriss, and — subject to an alternative — the recorded
opinion of Mr. Jukes, who writes, —
" The Papuan race exclusively possesses the islands
on the north-east of Australia, namely, New Guinea with
New Britain and New Ireland, the Solomon Islands, the
islands called Tierra Austral del Espiritu Santo, and the
New Hebrides, and New Caledonia. It extends also to the
Feejee Islands, where it is more or less mingled with the
Polynesian race, and where the language appears to be
of Polynesian origin. It is probable that from New
Caledonia proceeded the colony, or whatever it was, that
reached Tasmania, and there mingled with the Australian
race. To the westward of New Guinea scattered tribes,
apparently of Papuan race, are said to occur in the in-
terior of many islands as far west as that called Ende
Flores or Mangeray, and as far north as the Philippine
Islands. It has even been said that the Andaman Islands,
in the Bay of Bengal, are inhabited by a people much
resembling the Papuans, and I have been struck with the
similarity of many of their customs to those which are
264 ORIGIN OF POPULATION.
said to characterize some of the wild hill tribes in the
centre of India. I believe, however, that many of the
stories of tribes of people being found in the various parts
of the Archipelago, must be received with much caution,
and that most of the wild people so described will be
found, like the Dyaks of Borneo, or the wild tribes of the
Malacca Peninsula, to be really of Polynesian race. A
mingling of the Papuan race with the Australian, proba-
bly takes place at the present day in the neighbourhood
of Torres Strait, but not, perhaps, to so great an extent
as might be expected, for I am inclined to think that the
Australians give way and retreat before the islanders.
* * * * Whatever may have been the origin of the
Polynesians, it is certainly most probable that their reason
for going round these Papuan islands (whether from the
east or west), and not taking possession of them, was the
fact of their being previously inhabited by the Papuans.1'*
* Voyage of the Fly, p. 251.
D.
HYPERBOREAN
WE are now in Siberia rather than in Central Asia ;
along the courses of large rivers rather than at their head-
waters ; and in a region of tundras, or flat barren morasses,
rather than on elevated steppes. We are also in the coun-
try of the reindeer and dog rather than the horse and sheep.
Fishing and fur-hunting, too, will form a portion of the
occupations of the Hyperborean Mongolidse. These con-
ditions, different as they are in many respects from the
general conditions of the Turk and Mongolian Turanians,
have still been met with before, i.e. with the Northern
Ugrians, the Northern Tungusians, and the Yakuts. One
of the nations about to be enumerated, occupies the most
northern portion of the inhabited world, i.e. the Samoeids
of the Northern promontory of Asia.
HYPERBOREAN NATIONS AND TRIBES.
Physical conformation. — Undersized Mongols.
Languages.- — Agglutinate ; neither monosyllabic nor paiiro- syllabic.
Political relations. — Subject to either Russia or China.
Religion. — 'Shamanism or imperfect Christianity.
Distribution. — The coasts of the Arctic Ocean ; the courses of the Yenisey
and Kolyma. Area discontinuous.
Divisions. — 1. The Samoeids. 2. The Yeniseians. 3. The Yukahiri.
The discontinuity of the Hyperborean area is to the
following extent : —
a. The Samb'eid class falls into two divisions, a northern
and a southern ; and these are separated from one another
by Turk, Yenisean, and Ugrian tribes.
266 HYPERBOREAN MONGOLIA.
b. The Yeniseans are surrounded by Ugrians, Turks,
and Tungusians, with which they have less affinity than
with the Samoeids, from whom they are separated.
c. The most western Yukahiri are separated from the
most eastern Samoeids by Yakut Turks and Tungusians.
This discontinuity of area must be taken along with two
other facts.
a. That the Hyperborean nations are nations of a reced-
ing frontier.
5. That the Turks, Tungus, and (in relation to the
Hyperborean), the Ugrians, are nations of an encroaching
frontier. These give, as an inference, the probability of
the three separate divisions having once been continuous ;
so that the original Hyperborean populations must be con-
sidered to have been broken up, and partially superseded
by the Turks and Tungusians, and to exist, at present,
only in the form of fragments.
SAMOEIDS.
SOUTHERN DIVISION (SOIOT).
Localities. — a. The parts around Lake Ubsa, within the limits of the Chinese
Empire ; the river Bashkus, which expands into the Lake Altin, or Teleakoi, and
becomes one of the sources of the Obi.
6. Tunkinsk, on the southwest extremity of the Lake Baikal, within the
Russian territory.
c. Abakansk on the left branch of the Upper Yenisey. From Abakansk,
they moved eastwards in A.D. 1618.
d. The River Uda between the two branches of the Upper Yenisey.
Tribes. — a. Of the Lake Ubsa, the Uriangchai or Soiot. Of the Uriangchai,
the Bagari, the Matlar, the Tozhin, the Ulek.
c. Of Abakansk ; the Matorzi, or Motori, and Koibal. Probably now ex-
tinct ; since in 1722, only ten families of the Modori remained. The Kamash.
d. Of the Uda ; the Karakash.
Conterminous with the Mongols, Tungusians, Yeniseans, and Turks. Sepa-
rated by the last two from the Northern Samoeids.
Vocabularies. — Of the Motori, Koibal, and Kamash.
NORTHERN DIVISION (KHASOVO).
Area. — From the Mezene, between the Petchora and Archangel, and falling
into the White Sea, to the Chatunga in 105° east longitude, along the coast of the
Arctic Ocean, and on the lower courses of the Petchora, Obi, and Yenisey.
SAMOEIDS. 267
Southwards ; on the Yenisey to Turokansk, on the Obi, as far as Tomsk.
This is their nearest point to the Southern Samoeids.
Conterminous with the Yakuts and Tungusians (?) on the east, the Yeniseans
and Turks on the south, and the Ostiaks and Russians on the west.
Name. — Of the northern Samoeids on the River Tas, between the Yenisey
and the Obi, Mokase. Of those of the Lower Obi and White Sea, Kkasovo
— 7»e«.
Some of the Sambeid tribes are improperly called Ostiaks.
Called by themselves Nyenech =men.
„ Khasovo=men.
„ the Obi Ostiaks Jergan-yacli.
„ Tungusians Dyandal.
„ Syranians Yarang.
„ Woguls Yorran-kum.
„ Russians Samoeid.
Vocabularies. — 1. From Pustoserk, at the mouth of the Petchora. The north-
westernmost locality.
2. From Obdorsk, at the mouth of the Obi.
3. From the River Tym, on the right side of the Obi.
4. From the River Ket, ibid.
5. From Narym between the two.
6. From Pumpokolsk north of the Tym.
7. From Tomsk, the southernmost locality.
8. From the parts between the Obi and Yenesey, the Yurass, the Tas,
Mangaseia vocabularies.
9. From Turuchansk.
10. From the east of Turuchansk. The Karass vocabulary.
1 1. From the parts about the Chatunga. The Tawgi vocabulary. These the
most easterly specimens.
12. The Laak vocabulary.
Of all the tribes of Siberia the Samoeids are nearest to
the Eskimo, or Greenlanders, in their physical appearance.
Varieties, however, have been described ; some tribes
having been called tall, others fair. The general character
is that of the Laplander, and the Eskimo — the other
circumpolar divisions of the human species.*
The Koibals are in all probability the most advanced of
* Mammarum summitates apud Samb'eidas nigerrimae. Sic apud authores
reperi ; quos, suspicor, aut gravidas, aut viragines fusciores vidisse. Idem
de Lapponibus traditur. Praecox, quoque, pro borealibus, puellarum Venus ;
catameniis ante duodecimum annum accedentibus.
268
HYPERBOREAN MONGOLIA.
the Samoeids — being the owners of herds, flocks, horses,
and camels (?).
Fig. 9.
As early as A.D. 1096, the term Samoeid appears in
the Russian chronicles, and it is to be found again in
the Travels of Plan Carpin, a hundred and fifty years
later.
YENISEIANS.
Locality. — Each side of Yenisey, limited by the Northern Samoeids between
Inbask and Turuchansk, and by the Southern Samoeids and Turks, in the
neighbourhood of Krasnoiarsk. On the west are the south-eastern tribes of the
northern Samoeids. On the east Tungusians and Turks.
Native name. — Kb'nniyiing.
Vocabularies — 1. Inbask. 2. Pumpokolsk. 3. Assan. 4. Kott. 5. Arinzi.
6. Denka.
YENISEIANS.— YUKAHIRI. 269
YUKAHIRI.
Native name- — Andon-Domni. Called by the Koraeki Atal— spotted, from
wearing reindeer skins.
Locality. — Valley of the Kolyma, originally of the Yana and Indijirka also.
Particular tribes. — 1. Tsheltiere, on the River Omolon. 2. Omoki, on the
Atasey. 3-4. Tshuvantsi and Kudinski on the Anisey. 5. Konghini, on the
Kolyma. 6. Shelagi, on the promontory of Shelagskoi Noss.
Conterminous with the Yakut Turks, the Lamut TungusianSj and the Koriaks.
The Yukahiri, although said to have been, even as late
as the beginning of the last century, a powerful people,
are at present rapidly diminishing. The Omoki and
Shelagi are either extinct, or nearly so. So also, most
probably, are the Tseltiere, the Kudinski, and the Kong-
hini. Laying out of the account the influence of Russia,
the northern Koriaks on the east, the Yakuts on the west,
and the Lamut Tungusians on the south, have been the
chief encroaching tribes.
The writer who has paid most attention to the language
of these three divisions of the Siberian population is
Klaproth ; who, I believe, was also the first who sepa-
rated the Yeniseians from the Ugrians. With these
they were confounded, from the fact of their being deno-
minated by the Russians, OstiaJcs ; a term, which from
being already applied to the Ugrians of the Oby, was
equivocal. To obviate this ambiguity, it was necessary
to speak of two kinds of Ostiaks, those of the Obi, and
those of the Yenisey ; and so the nomenclature became
confused. All this, however, is remedied by adhering to
Klaproth's term Yeniseian. And such is the present
custom of philologists.
Respecting the extent to which the Yeniseian, the
Samoeid, and Yukahiri, are isolated languages ; the clas-
sification of the present writer is opposed to that of the
Asia Polyglotta. Klaproth raises each to the rank of a
270
HYPERBOREAN MONGOLIA.
separate family, and neither admits any definite relation-
ship between the three, as compared with each other, nor
yet between any one of them and any of the neighbouring
languages. Still he indicates some important general and
miscellaneous affinities ; and Prichard does the same. The
following table helps to verify the present classification.
A.
The Yenisean of the Asia Polyglotta, and the
English, beard
Inbask, kulye, kulgung
Pumpokolsk, cttpuk
Assan, culup, chulp
Kott, hulup
Arinzi, korolep
Yukahiri, bu-gylbe
English, head
Inbask, tshig
Yukahiri, yok
English, mouth
Pumpokolsk, khan
Yukahiri, anya
English, nose
Inbask, olgen, olen
Pumpokolsk, hang
Assan, ang
Yukahiri, yongul, iongioula.
English, tongue
Assan, alup
Kott, alup
Arinzi, alyap
Yukahiri, andzhub
English, ear
Assan, kologan, klokan
Kott, kalogan
Yukahiri, golondzhi
English, man
Inbask, f et, blet
Pumpokolsk, ilset
Yukahiri of the Asia Polyglotta.
Kott, hatket
Yukahiri, yadu
English, dog
Inbask, tsip, tip
Yukahiri, tabalia
English, thunder
Arinzi, esbath-yantu
Yukahiri, yendu
English, lightning
Inbask, yakene-bok
Yukahiri, bug-onshe
English, egg
Inbask, onge
Arinzi, ang
Pumpokolsk, tanyangeeg
Yukahiri, langdzhango
English, leaf
Assan, yepan
Kott, dipang
Yukahiri, yipan
English, eat
Assan, rayali
Yukahiri, lagul
English, yellow
Kott, shuiga
Yukahiri, tshakatonni
English, moon
Pumpokolsk, tui
Arinzi, shui
Yukahiri, kinin-shi
YENISEIANS. — YUKAIIIRI.
271
B.
The Yenisean of the Asia Polyglotta, and the Samoeid of the Asia Potyglotta.
English, arm
Arinzi, khinang
Maugaseia, kannamunne
English^ finger
Inbask, to/can
Pumpokolsk, tok
Tawgi, fyaaka
Yurass, tarka
English, flesh
Arinzi, is
Assan, zp, ifi
Pumpokolsk, zif
Mangaseia, osa
Turuchansk, odzha
Narym, &c., ueg
Karass, huef
English, fir-tree
Inbask, ei
Arinzi, aya
Obdorsk, ye
English, egg
Inbask, ong
Arinzi, ang
Pumpokolsk, eg
Tas, iga
English, egg
Assan, shulei
Kott, shulei
Motorian, shlok
English, tree
Assan, atsh
Kott, &c., acihe
Motorian, &c., cha.
English, brother
Assan, pobesh
Koibal, pabim ^.younger
English, butter
Assan, &c., kayak
Motorian, chayak
English, moon
Assan, shui
Koibal, kid
English, sun
Assan, &c., ega
Motorian, kaye
English, stone
Inbask, fijgs, tyes
Pumpokolsk, fys, kit
Assan, shish
Kott, shish
Arinzi, khes
Motorian, dagia
English, summer
Assan, shega
Kott, chushsltega
Arinzi, shei
Motor, daghan
Koibal, toga
English, they
Assan, hatin
Arinzi, itang
Motor, tin
English, woman
Inbask, bgim
Arinzi, byk-hamalte
Obdorsk, pug-utsu
Pustoserk, pug-ipi
English, river
Denka, chuge
Pustoserk, yoga
English, great
Assan, paca
Arinzi, birkJia
Pustoserk, pirfe
272
HYPERBOREAN MONGOLIA.
English, evening
Inbask, it's
Pumpokolsk, bifidin
Assan, pidziga
Yurass, pausema
Obdorsk, paus-emya
Pustoserk, paus-emye
English, hill
Inbask, &c. chai
Samoeid, syeo, ko
English, bed
Inbask, chodzha
Obdorsk, choba
Tawgi, kufu
English, birch-tree
Inbask, uusya
Assan, Ufa
Kott, Ufa
Pustoserk, chu
Tawgi, &c., kuie
Ket, Hue
English, leaf
Yeniseian, yp-an
Pumpokolsk, efig
Pustoserk, wyba
Obdorsk, wiibe
Yurass, newe
Tomsk, tyaba
Narym, fabe
Kamash, dzhaba
Nevertheless, the present class is provisional. All that
is at present asserted, is that the three divisions which it
contains, are not sufficiently distinct to be separated.
Whether, however, the whole section may not, hereafter,
become a sub-division of either the Turanian, or the
Peninsular Mongolidse, is doubtful. Most probably it
will.
E.
PENINSULAR MONGOLTD^E.
THIS division comprises tribes which, I believe, have
not hitherto been thrown in the same class, tribes sepa-
rated from each other by considerable breaks in the
geographical, and even in the ethnological continuity.
Some of these lie within the Arctic Circle; others as far
south as 26° north latitude. Not less distant are the two
extremes of their social development ; one section of the
group partaking of the civilization of China, another exhi-
biting the rudeness of the Samoeid, and Yenisean.
PENINSULAR NATIONS AND TRIBES.
Physical conformation. — 'Mongol.
Languages. — Agglutinate. In some cases excessively ;>o^- syllabic.
Area. — Islands and peninsulas of the north-eastern coast of Asia.
Divisions. — 1. The Koreans. 2. The Japanese. 3. The Aino. 4. The
Koriaks. 5. The Kamskadales.
After indicating the points of difference, it is necessary
to justify the present classification by showing in what
way the divisions of the Peninsular Mongolidse agree.
1. They agree in their land and water relations — being,
as is expressed by the epithet applied to them, the inha-
bitants of either peninsulas or of islands that form an
extension of them ; a fact wherein we have, to a certain
extent, common conditions in the way of physical, and
common conditions in the way of social development.
2. They lie within a few degrees of the same longitude.
274 PENINSULAR MONGOLIA.
This, however, is a mere consequence of their position
on the same side of the same continent.
3. They are more maritime in locality than in habit ;
the Japanese being the chief navigators of the group.
Compared, however, with the Chinese and Malays, the
Japanese are but moderate navigators.
4. Although at present interrupted, there is good reason
for believing that the original area was continuous. The
parts that are broken are the tracts between Korea and
the mouth of the Amur, and the south-west coast of the
sea of Okhotsk. Now this interval is filled up by the
Tungusian tribes ; tribes whose area has certainly been
an encroaching one.
5. As compared with the Chinese, the Japanese and
Korean languages are not monosyllabic.
6. As compared with the Yakut Turk, and the Lamut
Tungusian, the Kamskadale and Koriak are not Turanian.
7. What applies to the language of the Peninsular
tribes applies to their physical appearance also.
All this, however, may be the case without affording
the least proof of a true ethnological connection, i.e. of a
connection in the way of descent and affiliation; since
even the similarity of physical appearance, which, making
allowance for differences of latitude and civilization, is, from
all accounts, very close, may merely be the effect of common
climatologic conditions, wholly independent of relationship.
To prove this a fresh set of facts is required. Nor are
they wanting.
1. The Peninsular languages have a general glossarial
connection with each other ; the grammatical structure of
only one of them (the Japanese) being known.
2. The Peninsular languages have a general glossarial
connection with a third class.
THE KOREANS. 275
In the opinion of the present writer the Peninsular
languages agree in the general fact of being more closely
akin to those of America than any other ; and this, of
itself, he considers to be a sufficient reason for placing
them in a separate division. It also, to a certain extent,
removes the evidence of their mutual affinity to another
part of the work, i.e. that which treats of the origin of the
American population; inasmuch as the same tables which
connect the American languages with the Peninsular ones,
connect these last with each other. In a series of mono-
graphs these proofs could have been given separate ; in a
systematic work, however, it is necessary to economise
space by making the same lists prove two points at once.
Hence, they will appear in the sequel.
THE KOREANS.
Locality. The peninsula of Korea ; in Chinese, Kao-li.
Political relations. — Subject to China.
Religion. — That of Fo, modified.
Alphabet. — Not rhaematographic.
Chief foreign influences. — Chinese, Mantshu, and Japanese ; in the thirteenth
century, Mongolian.
Physical appearance. — " The Koorai'an is superior in stature to the Japanese ;
yet his height seldom exceeds five-and-a-half Parisian feet: he is of strong,
vigorous make, his figure well-proportioned, active, and full of life. The shape
of his features bears in general the impress of the Mongolian race : the coarse
broad countenance ; the projecting cheek-bones ; the strong under-jaw ; the nose
depressed at the root or upper part, and broadly- spread alae ; the large mouth,
with broad lips ; the peculiar position of the eyes, apparently angular in the
direction of their opening ; the rough, thick, black hair of the head, often in-
clined to a red brown colour ; thick eyebrows ; thin beard ; with a reddish- yellow,
wheat-coloured (iveitzen-farbich\ or straw-coloured complexion, announce him at
once and at the first look, as an inhabitant of the north-eastern parts of Asia.
This type is common to most of the Koora'i'ans observed by us, and they recognise
it as that which is most distinctive of their nation." — SIEBOLD.*
The political relations towards China, the great amount
of Chinese influences upon the civilization of Korea, and
the physical likeness between the Koreans and the Chinese
* Prichard, vol. iv. p. 522-3.
T2
276 PENINSULAR MONGOLIA.
have had, in many instances, the effect of diverting the
attention of ethnologists from the true affinities of this
division of the Peninsular Mongolidse ; and it should be
added that the last of the three facts just enumerated is a
legitimate ground for looking, in the first instance, to China.
It is one which the present writer has no wish to conceal.
The question, however, must be viewed in all its bearings ;
in which case we meet with the important fact that the
Korean language is anything rather than monosyllabic.
Siebold, as I learn from Prichard, thought that he per-
ceived some analogies between the Japanese, the Korean,
and the Aino. He might have done more. He might have
been sure of their existence — and that to an extent suf-
ficient to throw the three tongues in the same category.
According to Klaproth,* speaking on the authority of
Chinese writers, the present inhabitants of Korea represent
the mixture of two separate populations ; the true abo-
rigines being the Koreans of the south, called by the Chi-
nese, the Sam Han = the three tribes of Han. The northern
are a people who came originally from a country lying to
the northward of the Chinese province of Tshy-li, called by
the Chinese writers Sian-pi. Whether this mixture, sup-
posing it to be real, represents the juxta -position of tribes,
widely different or different in little more than name, is
uncertain. Prichard, however, has truly remarked that the
physical characters of both must have been nearly alike,
inasmuch as they were each within the region where the
Turanian type prevails. It may also be added that no
traces of a second philological element in the difference
between the Northern and the Southern Korean dialects
have yet been pointed out. In a language, however, so
imperfectly understood, this is not saying much.
* Prichard, vol. iv. p. 497.
THE JAPANESE. 277
In regard to the physical difference between different
Korean individuals no such negative statement can be made.
Dr. Siebold* writes as follows : — " In the countenances
of the Kooraians we may recognise the characteristics of
two different races of people. The nose pressed down near
the inner angle of the orbit and expanding itself into broad
alee ; the eyes obliquely placed, with the inner angles
widely separated from each other ; the greater projection
of the cheek-bones ; are marks of the race first described.
But when the root of the nose is more raised and the
nose more straight, the configuration of the countenance
approaches to the stamp of the Caucasian type, and the
form of the eyes is more like that of Europeans ; the
cheek-bones, too, are less prominent, and the sharp profile,
which is wanting to the Mongolian race, now makes its
appearance. The more the countenance belongs to the
former cast the less beard does it display, whereas, in per-
sons of a sharp profile, the beard is often rather strong.
The skull is in these instances less compressed, the fore-
head, which elsewhere retreats, is straight, and the whole
aspect of the countenance displays a certain noble expres-
sion which is looked for in vain in the rough traits of the
Mongolian type."
As evidence, however, to the presence of a foreign ele-
ment of the kind implied in the Chinese account, this is
imperfect — indeed I have no reason to believe that it is
meant to be such — since it is not said by Dr. Siebold that
this difference of feature coincides with the northern and
southern portions of the population.
THE JAPANESE.
Localities. — From south to north — the Lu Chu Islands, Kiusiu, Sikoko, Nipon,
the southern part of Jesso.
Political relations. — Independent.
Prichard, vol. iv. p. 526.
278 PENINSULAR MONGOLIA.
Alpliabet. — Not rhaematographic.
Religion. — a. Of Chinese origin — 1. That of Fo, modified ; 2. The philosophi-
cal system of Confucius, modified.
6. The original Paganism.
Physical Appearance. — " The people of this nation are well made, active, free,
and. easy in their motions, with stout limbs, although their strength is not to
be compared with that of the northern inhabitants of Europe. The men are of
the middling size, and in general not very corpulent ; yet I have seen some that
were fat. They are of a yellowish colour all over, sometimes bordering on brown,
and sometimes on white. The lower class of people, who in summer, when at
work, lay bare the upper part of their bodies, are sun-burnt, and consequently
brown. Ladies of distinction, who seldom go out in the open air without being
covered, are perfectly white. It is by their eyes that, like the Chinese, these
people are distinguishable. These organs have not that rotundity, which those
of other nations exhibit, but are oblong, small, and are sunk deeper in the head,
in consequence of which these people have almost the appearance of being pink-
eyed. Their eyes are dark-brown, or rather black, and the eyelids form in the
great angle of the eye a deep furrow, which makes the Japanese look as if they
were sharp-sighted, and discriminates them from other nations. The eye-brows
are also placed somewhat higher. Their heads are in general large, and their
necks short ; their hair black, thick, and shining, from the use they make of oils.
Their noses, although not flat, are yet rather thick and short." — THUNBERG.*
" The population of Fizen, as well as that of the whole island of Kiusiu, is
divided between the dwellers on the coast, and those of the interior and of the
towns, who differ from each other in their physical aspect, language, manners,
and character.
" The coasts, and the numberless islands which border on them, are inhabited
by fishers and seafaring people, men small but vigorous, of a deeper colour than
those of the other classes. Their hair, more frequently black than of a red
brown colour, — brun-rougeatrej — is crisped in some individuals who have also
the facial angle strongly marked, — ires prononcee, — their lips puffed, — enflecs, —
the nose small, slightly aquiline, and depressed at the root, — renfonc£e a la ratine.
" Address, perseverance, boldness, a frankness which never amounts to effron-
tery, a natural benevolence and a complaisance which approaches to the abject ;
such are the characteristic qualities of the sea-coast people.
" The natives of the interior of Ki6siu, who devote themselves chiefly to
agriculture, are a larger race, and are distinguishable by a broad and flattened
countenance ; by the prominence of their cheek-bones, and the distance between
the inner canthi ; by their broad and very flat nose, their large mouth ; by their
hair, which is of a deep brown colour, inclining to red-brown, tirant sur le brun-
rougeatre, — and by the clearer colour of their skin. Among the cultivators, who
are perpetually exposed to the air and sun, the skin becomes red : the women,
who protect themselves from the influence of the atmosphere, have generally a
fine and white skin, and the cheeks of the young girls display a blooming car-
nation.
Prichard, vol. iv. p. 521-2.
THE JAPANESE. 279
" This agricultural race is laborious, sober, pious, cordial, and consequently hos-
pitable. The savage nature, tempered from infancy by the constant observance of
the forms of politeness and the etiquette of the country, does not exclude a cer-
tain nobility, and never degenerates into grossness as among the peasantry of
Europe. The husbandmen of Fizen are even too ceremonious." — SIEBOLD.*
Of the nobles of Japan, Kaempfer says, they " are somewhat more majestic
in their shape and countenance than the generality, and are more like Euro-
peans." t
The notices of tribes darker in colour than the domi-
nant part of the population, of which we have seen so
much in the oceanic area, re-appear in the history of
Japan. They are stated to belong to either the interior
or to the southern portion of the empire. This, however,
may be the case without involving the necessity of assum-
ing a second source for the population ; at the same time
such a second source is no ethnological improbability.
The darker Amphinesians of Formosa, may possibly have
tended farther northward.
The Japanese Alphabet is of Chinese origin ; changed
from a rhsematographic to a syllabic form. Indeed the great
civilizing influence in Japan has been from China. This,
according to the doubts expressed in a previous! part
of the present work, limits the antiquity of the Japanese
history, and the value of the Japanese traditions.
The original paganism of Japan is probably to be
studied in the Kurile Islands. Siebold's notice of it (ex-
tracted from Prichard) §, is as follows : —
"The Kamis or gods of the original Japanese, were,
according to a collection of the national traditions, not
eternal. The first five gods originated at the separation of
elements .in which the world began : they are the Amatsu-
kami. A bud, similar to that of the Asi, the Erianthus
Japonicus, expanded itself between heaven and earth and
* Prichard, vol. iv. p. 527-8. f Id. vol. iv. p. 528.
t See pp. 55-60. § Prichard, vol. iv. p. 496.
280 PENINSULAR MONGOLIA.
produced Kuni-soko-tatsino-mi-koto, or the ' Maker of the
dry land,1 who governed the world, as yet uufashioned,
during an immeasurable space of time, which was more
than a hundred thousand millions of years. This kami
had many successors whose reigns were nearly as long.
Their temples are still places of worship in Oomi and
Ise, districts of Japan. There were seven dynasties of
celestial gods. The last, Iza-na-gi, standing on a bridge
that floated between heaven and earth, said to his wife,
Iza-na-mi, ' Come on ; there must be some habitable land :
let us try to find it.' He dipped his pike, ornamented
with precious stones, into the surrounding waters and
agitated the waves : the drops which fell from his pike
when he raised it thickened and formed an island, named
' Ono-koro-sima.' On this island Iza-na-gi and his wife
descended, and made the other provinces of the Japanese
empire. From them descended the five dynasties or reigns
of earthly gods. From the last of these originated Ziii-
moo-teu-woo, the ruler of men, who, as above mentioned,
founded the empire of Japan, and conquered the abori-
ginal tribes. From Zin-moo's reign is dated the first year
of the epoch of Japanese chronology, coinciding with the
seventh year of the Chinese emperor Hoei-wang, B. c. 660.
Such is the cosmogony of the Japanese. Their highest
adoration is given to the deity of the sun, offspring of
Iza-na-gi and Iza-na-mi : to him are subordinate all the
genii or demons which govern the elements and all the
operations of nature, as well as the souls of men, who after
death go to the gods or to an infernal place of punish-
ment, according to their actions on earth. Sacred festi-
vals are held at certain seasons of the year and at changes
of the moon. The whole number of kamis or gods wor-
shipped by the Japanese amounts to three thousand one
LU-CHU ISLANDS AINO. 281
hundred and thirty-two. These gods are worshipped in
different temples without idols."
THE LU-CHU ISLANDS.
Name. — Chinese, Lieou-Khieou. Native, Oghii.
Religion. — Buddhism.
Political relations. — Tribute paid both to China and Japan.
Language. — Akin to the Japanese.
Alpftabets. — Chinese and Japanese.
Physical appearance. — " Their hair, which is of a glossy black, is shaved off
the crown. Their beards and mustachios are allowed to grow. They are rather
low in stature, but are well formed, and have an easy, graceful carriage. Their
colour is not good, some being very dark, and others nearly white, but in most
instances they are of a deep copper. This is fully compensated by the sweetness
and intelligence of their countenance. Their eyes, which are black, have a placid
expression.''*
THE AINO.
Locality. — a. On the Continent. — 1. The mouth of the Amur. 2. The
southernmost extremity of Kamskatka. 6. The Kurile Islands, and the northern
part of Jesso. c. The island, or peninsula of Saghalin.
Political relations. — Subject to China, Russia, and Japan.
Religion. — Imperfect Buddhism. The doctrine of Siiidu. Paganism.
Physical appearance. — Skin darker than that of the Japanese, but, probably
(from the iris being lighter) this is through being more exposed.
An Aino tribe occupying the banks of the Amur, and
noticed by Timkowski,f under the name of Kileng, or
Kilerzi, is probably the same with the Gilacken j of Von
Middendorf. Of these the appearance is varied, some-
times Japanese, sometimes Caucasian.
The moral character of the Aino has generally been
described in highly favourable terms. Their religion is
probably allied to the original paganism of Japan.
" The sun, the moon, the sea, and other striking objects
of nature, are the divinities of the Aino : they represent
them under rude symbols and offer sacrifices to them. The
men of Karafto burn upon the shore the heads of animals
* Captain Hall's Voyage to the Great Loo-choo Island, p. 71. — Prichard, vol. iv.
•f- Prichard, vol. iv. p. 451.
t Transactions of the British Association for the Advancement of Science for
1846.
282 PENINSULAR MONGOLIA.
which they have caught, as a gift to the sea. Daily the
Aino addresses the following words to the divinity who
protects his cabin : — ' We thank thee,* Kamo'i, for having
dwelt here in our coast and watched for us,1 and he repeats
after the prayer, ' Kamo'i ever take care of us.' They
believe likewise that there is a God of heaven and of hell ;
this is the residence of Nitsul Kamoi. They have also
little wooden temples containing images of their idols
carved in wood. Yearly they have a festival termed
Omsia, when all the family regale themselves with sake
and bear's flesh. In their marriages the Aino are careful
to avoid too near relationship. In Karaflo, the inhabitants
of the north take wives from the southern part. The chief
of the village confirms the marriage, which is concluded
on the dowry or price being paid to the father of the
betrothed. The women are free, and in Karafto rule their
husbands.
" Before funerals the Aino puts on a new coat made of
fine bark. The Smerenkow burns the body and collects
the ashes which are kept in a little chapel, makes offerings
to the presiding idol, and covers with branches the spot
where the body was consumed. They erect stakes in
honour of the defunct, from the wood of the house, which
is always pulled down. Bodies of the rich receive honours
of a different kind : they are embalmed, filled with odori-
ferous herbs, and dried during a year, then placed in a
sepulchre, where they are annually visited by their rela-
tives. Yet the Aino have no calendar and reckon time
by the fall of the leaf. They have neither letters nor
money. They apply two remedies in case of all sickness, a
' boletus laricis ' and the root ikeme, supposed to be a sort
sT -f-
* Kami=God in Japanese. •%• Prichard, vol. iv. p. 455-6.
KORIAKS. 283
Two statements have been made concerning the Aino,
which are curious if true.
1. That of all men they are the most covered with hair ;
even their backs being covered with it. I am inclined to
class this with the tails of the Nicobar islanders.
2. That they ride upon bears ; which the females suckle
when young, and so tame ; a fact, when verified, of equal
novelty in zoology and ethnography.
The Peninsula of Sagalin, and the island of Jesso are
the probable lines by which Japan was peopled ; at least
so far as the simple land-and-water conditions are con-
cerned. And I know nothing that counteracts them.
The KachTiall. — This is a tribe mentioned by Von Mid-
denorf as inhabiting the south bank of the Amur. He
knows it, however, only from the description given by the
Ainos. Their stature is short ; the lower extremities
disproportionately so.
THE KORIAKS.
Present area. — The parts between the Omolon, an eastern branch of the
Kolyma, the Arctic Ocean, Behring's Straits, and the Gulf of Anadyr, except
only a tract of coast in the two latter localities, inhabited by the Namollos.
Southwards, to the middle of the Peninsula of Karnskatka, across the northern
portion of which it extends. The head of the Gulf of Penjinsk, in the Sea of
Okhotsk. Conterminous with the Yukahiri, Lamut Tungusians, Kamskadales,
and Namollos.
Supposed ancient area. — As far west as the Kolyma, possibly farther. Pro-
bably also farther south. On the other hand, not so far east as at present ; the
Namollos being believed to have extended so far as Shelagskoi Noss.
Divisions. — a. Northern Koriaks, or Tshuktshi ; 6. Southern Koriaks, or
Koraeki. The two divisions separated by the river Anadyr,
Habits. — Nomadic. Kora, which is said to mean a rein-deer, is held to be the
root of the term Koraeki, a name which, for the southern Koriaks, is stated to
be indigenous.
Religion. — Shamanism. In some cases an imperfect Christianity.
Political relations. — The Southern Koriaks tributary to Russia ; the Northern,
(or Tshuktshi) independent.
Physical appearance. — The Koraeki are taller, and with eyes less sunken, and
noses less depressed than the Kamskadales ; differential points which are still
more marked in the Tshuktshi.
284 PENINSULAR MONGOLIA.
The southern Koriaks have probably encroached upon
the Kamskadales, and been encroached upon by the Lamut
Tungusians. The Tshuktshi have, in like manner, receded
in one quarter and encroached in another. Before the
Russians they have retreated towards the east and north.
The Yukahiri tribes, however, they have displaced and, in
some cases, exterminated. They still hold their inde-
pendence.
This, in some measure, accounts for our imperfect know-
ledge of them, little being ascertained except their un-
civilized, nomadic character, their political independence,
the Shamanistic nature of their religion, and their general
resemblance in respect to physical conformation to the
American Indians.
Polygamy is general amongst them, and according to
Von Matiushkin, the chief authority upon the subject,
the women, although certainly slaves, are allowed more
influence, and are subjected to less labour than is the case
amongst most other rude tribes. Deformed children
are destroyed, and so are those which, for other reasons,
are likely to become difficult to rear. So also are such
aged and infirm persons, as have become unfit for wear
and tear of a nomadic life within the Arctic circle.
So great is the influence of the Shamans, or so low is
the value set upon human life, that in 1814, after a
terrible storm, followed by a fatal epidemic, and by a
murrain among the cattle, the result of a general consulta-
tion having been, that one of the most respected of the
chiefs, named Kotshen, must be sacrificed, to appease the
irritated spirits, the sacrifice took place accordingly. In
the first instance, indeed, the commands of the Shamans
were rejected. The plague, however, continued, when
Kotshen at last declared his willingness to submit. No
KAMSKADALES. 285
one, however, could be found to be his executioner ; until
his own son plunged a knife in his heart, and gave his
body to the Shamans.
The Tshuktshi habitations consist of an outer and
larger tent, under which are two or three smaller ones ;
these last being made of skins stretched over laths, and
so low, that the persons inside can only sit upon the
ground. It has no opening for air or light, and is entered
by an aperture barely large enough for the body of the
owner. An earthen vessel filled with train oil, and with a
wick of moss, serves as a lamp rather as a fire ; and so
close is the atmosphere, that the heat which it affords is
sufficient. Here the family sit, during the intense cold of
an Arctic winter, either wholly naked, or with the very
scantiest clothing.
They call themselves Tshekto = people. " They are dis-
tinguished from the other Asiatic races, by their stature
and physiognomy, which appears to me to resemble that of
the Americans,* but the language is different.""
THE KAMSKADALES.
Locality. — The southern half (or third) of the Peninsula of Kamskatka, with
the exception of the extreme point of the peninsula ; which is inhabited by
the Aino.
Native name. — Itiilmen.
Dialects. — Four. That of Tigil, so much mixed with Koriak, as to be some-
times quoted as the Koriak of Tigil.
Physical appearance. — Undersized Mongols, with little beard, sunken eyes
and depressed noses.
The true Kamskadales are a nearly extinct race.
Amongst the causes of their rapid diminution a kind of
death, rare amongst savage nations, is enumerated — suicide.
" According to Steller, the Kamtschatkans have no idea
of a Supreme Being, but this must have been true only
in some peculiar sense of the expression, for he adds an
* Von Matiushkin.
286 PENINSULAR MONGOLIA.
account of their mythology, which in part contradicts the
above statement. They believe, as he says, in the immor-
tality of souls. All creatures, even to the smallest fly, are
destined, as they believe, to another eternal life under the
earth, where they are to meet with similar adventures to
those of their present state of existence, but never to suffer
hunger. In that world there is no punishment of crimes,
which, in the opinion of the Kamskadales, meet their
chastisement in the present life, but the rich are destined
to become poor and the poor here are to be enriched. The
sky and stars existed before the earth, which was made by
Katchu, or, as others say, brought by Katchu and his
sister Katligith with them from heaven and fastened upon
the sea. After Katchu had made the earth he left heaven
and came to dwell in Kamtschatka. He had a son, Tigil,
and a daughter, Sidanka, who married and became parents
of offspring : the latter clothed themselves with the leaves
of trees and fed upon the bark, for beasts were not yet
made, and the gods knew not how to catch fish. When
Katchu went to drink, the hills and valleys were formed
under his feet, for the earth had till then been a flat sur-
face. Tigil finding his family increase invented nets and
betook himself to fishing. The Kamtschatkans have, like
other pagans, images of their gods."*
Now Tigil is the name of the chief river of Kamskatka ;
the one which divides the Kamskadales from the Korki ;
so that, in Tigil the god, we have the eponymus of what in
the Bodo, as in many other countries besides, is a common
object of reverence."f-
* Prichard, vol. iv. p. 449-50.
f Apud hanc gentem agarici cujusdam succus potui, inter convivia inservit.
Ebrietatem inducit ; quodque magis minim est, urina ebriorum, quae ipsa ab aliis
potatur, idem pollet. Neque vim amittit per tertiam vel quartam vesicam trans-
missa.
F.
AMERICAN MONGOLID^E.
THE phsenomena which occur in Asiatic ethnology, in
Caucasus and High Asia, prepare us for those of the eth-
nology of America. In Asia we found, on one side, the
Turk tribes spread over a space nearly as large as Europe,
and that with but little variation — a typical instance of
what constitutes a large ethnological area. Then, on the
other hand, were the fastnesses of Caucasus, where we
found, packed up within a very limited area, a multiplicity
of mutually unintelligible languages, languages that were
counted by the dozen and the score — the Circassian,
Georgian, Lesgian, Mizjeji, and their subordinate dia-
lects. So that within a small geographical range we had,
in juxtaposition with each other, the maximum of extension
and the maximum of limitation.
Now this is what we shall find in America — large areas,
like the Turk, in contact with small ones, like the Ossetic.
But, in America, there are two points of difference —
1st. The multiplicity of languages within a limited area
is the rule rather than the exception.
2nd. There is not always so peculiar a class of physical
conditions as is to be found in the mountain fastnesses of
Caucasus to account for it; since in America we find steppes
and prairies, like those of Turkestan and Mongolia, in-
habited by tri'bes as different from each other as those of
the most isolated and isolating mountain-valleys.
Furthermore — when the American languages differ from
288 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
one another, they differ in a manner to which Asia has
supplied no parallel.
Also — when the American languages agree with one
another, they agree in a manner to which Asia has fur-
nished no parallel. This, however, is at present only indi-
cated. Its explanation will find place when we have
treated of the Eskimo, Koluch, and certain other families.
THE ESKIMO.
Unimportant as are the Eskimo in a political and his-
torical view, their peculiar geographical position gives them
an importance in all questions of ethnology : since one of
the highest problems turns upon the affinities of this family.
It has long been known that the nation which inhabits
Greenland and Labrador is the nation which inhabits the
North-western parts of Russian America as well. It is
found on the American side of Behring's Straits, and it
is found on the Asiatic side also. So that the Eskimo
is the only family common to the Old and New World ;
an important fact in itself, and one made more important
still by the Eskimo localities being the only localities
where the two continents come into proximity.
Now, if these facts had stood alone, unmodified by any
phsenomena that detracted from their significance, the
peopling of America would have been no more a mystery
than the peopling of Europe. Such, however, is not the
case. They neither stand alone, nor stand unmodified.
The reasons that lie against what is, at the first blush,
the common sense answer to the question, how was America
peopled ? are, chiefly, as follows —
1 . The distance of the north-eastern parts of Asia from
any probable centre of population — cradle of the human
race — so-called. For these parts to have been the passage,
Kamskatka must have been full to overflowing before the
THE ESKIMO. 289
the Mississippi had been trodden by the foot of a human
being.
2. The physical differences between the Eskimo and the
American Indian.
3. The difficulties presented by the Eskimo language.
It is only these two last reasons to which I attribute
much validity. The first of the three I put low in the
way of an objection ; i. e., not much higher than I put
the systems founded upon the Icelandic and Welsh tradi-
tions, the drifting of Japanese junks, and the effects of
winds and currents upon Polynesian canoes. Without, at
present, doubting whether the occurrences here alluded to
have happened since America was peopled by the present
race, I limit myself to an expression of dissent from the
doctrine that by any such unsatisfactory processes the origi-
nal population found its way : in other words, I believe that
our only choice lies between the doctrine that makes the
American nations to have originated from one or more
separate pairs of progenitors, and the doctrine that either
Behring's Straits or the line of Islands between Kamskatka
and the Peninsula of Aliaska, was the highway between
the two worlds — from Asia to America, or vice versa. I
say vice versa, since it by no means follows that, be-
cause Asia and America shall have been peopled by the
same race, the original of that race must, necessarily,
have arisen in Asia ; inasmuch as the statement that the
descendants of the same pair peopled two continents, taken
alone, proves nothing as to the particular continent in
which that pair first appeared. Against America, and
in favour of Asia being the birth-place of the Human
Race — its unity being assumed — I know many valid
reasons ; reasons valid enough and numerous enough to
have made the notion of New World being the oldest
290 AMERICAN MONGOLIDJ1.
of two a paradox. Nevertheless, I know no absolutely
conclusive ones.
Omitting, however, this question, the chief prima facie
objections to the view that America was peopled from
North-eastern Asia, lie in the —
1. Physical differences between the Eskimo and the Ame-
rican Indian. — Stunted as he is in stature, the Eskimo is
essentially a Mongol in physiognomy. His nose is flat-
tened, his cheek-bones project, his eyes are often oblique,
and his skin is more yellow and brown than red or copper-
coloured. On the other hand, in his most typical form,
the American Indian is not Mongol in physiognomy. With
the same black straight hair, he has an aquiline nose, a
prominent profile, and a skin more red or copper-coloured
than either yellow or brown. Putting this along with
other marked characteristics, moral as well as physical, it
is not surprising that the American should have been taken
as the type and sample of a variety in contrast with the
Mongolian.
2. Philological arguments. — Few languages, equally
destitute of literature, have been better or longer known
than the Eskimo. For this we have to thank the Da-
nish missionaries of Greenland — Egede, most especially.
From the grammar of Fabricius, the Eskimo was soon
known to be a language of long compound words, and of
regular, though remarkable, inflections. It was known,
too, to be very unlike the better-known languages of
Europe and Asia. Finally, it has been admitted to be,
in respect to its grammatical structure at least, American.
So much for the ethnographical philology of the Es-
kimo language as determined by its grammatical struc-
ture ; upon which we may notice the remarkable antago-
nism of the two tests. Physically, the Eskimo is a
THE ESKIMO. 291
Mongol and Asiatic. Philologically, he is American —
at least in respect to the principles upon which his speech
is constructed.
And now we may examine the details of the geogra-
phical area occupied by the Eskimo. Its direction is
double.
From east to west (or vice versa) it runs along the
shores of the Arctic Sea, in a line of irregular breadth ;
a line which is either wholly continuous or else broken
at one point only — a point which will be noticed in the
sequel. On the coast of the Atlantic the line widens, and
in Greenland it attains its maximum breadth.
From north to south it equally keeps the line of coast,
extending to irregular distances inland, but rarely very
far.
However, between the direction in latitude, and the
direction in longitude, as this distribution of the Eskimo
area may be called, there is a difference which is a very
important one. The Eskimos of the Atlantic are not
only easily distinguished from the tribes of American
aborigines which lie to the south or west of them, and
with which they come in contact, but they stand in strong
contrast and opposition to them — a contrast and oppo-
sition exhibited equally in appearance, manners, language,
and one which has had full justice done to it by those
who have written on the subject.
It is not so with the Eskimos of Russian America,
and the parts that look upon the Pacific. These are so
far from being separated by any broad and trenchant line
of demarcation from the proper Indians or the so-called
Red Race, that they pass gradually into it ; and that in
respect to their habits, manner, and appearance, equally.
So far is this the case that he would be a bold man who
u2
292 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
should venture, in speaking of the southern tribes of Rus-
sian America, to say here the Eskimo area ends, and here
a different area begins,
Whenever this has been done, it has been done on the
strength of an undue extension of the phenomena of the Es-
kimo area on the Atlantic ; it being supposedthat as the
Eskimo and Indians differ unequivocally on one side of
the continent, they must needs do so on the other also
— a natural, but a hasty and incorrect assumption.
Beginning with the Eskimo of the parts between Asia
and America, the first we meet with are —
The Aleutians. — The inhabitants of the Aleutian
Islands, properly so-called (i.e., of Behring's and Copper
Islands), of the Rat-Islands, of the Andreanowsky Is-
lands, of the Prebiilowiini-Islands, of Unalashka, and of
Kadiak, are all Eskimo ; a fact which numerous vocabu-
laries give us full means of ascertaining. In respect to
the difference of speech between particular islands, there
is external evidence that it is considerable. The people
of Atcha have a difficulty in understanding the Unalash-
kans, and vice versa. Again, the Kadiak vocabulary, as
found in Lisiansky, differs very notably from the Una-
lashkan of the same author ; indeed, I doubt whether
the two languages are mutually intelligible.
The Namollos. — These are the Asiatic Eskimo of the
Continent. The distribution is along the coast from
Tshuktshi-Noss to the mouth of the Anadyr ; from each
of which we have vocabularies in Klaproth's Asia Poly-
glotta. In respect to their position in Asia, two views
may be taken.
1 . That they are the aborigines of the country which
they inhabit, and, consequently, that they are an older
stock than those of America. — This is favoured by the
THE ESKIMO. 293
fact, that habitations of a Namollo character have been
found in the country of Tshuktshi, and even in that of
the Yukahiri.
2. That they are of comparatively recent date as
Asiatics, and, as such, but offsets from the parent stock
in America. — This is favoured by the similarity of lan-
guage ; since the differences between the Namollo and
the American Eskimo are not such as indicate a very~
long separation.
The Koneegi. — Occupants of the Island of Kadiak, and
of the Peninsula of Aliaska.
The Tshugatsi. — These are the natives of Prince
William's Sound, closely allied to the Kadiaks. Accord-
ing to tradition, they came from the North.
This is the proper place for noticing an element in
the traditions, or rather inj the mythology, of the Eskimo
of these parts. All or most of them agree in deriving
their origin from one or two animals — the raven or dog.
Now the Tshugatsi take their descent from the dog.
The name Tshugatsi is so like that of the northern
Koriaks (Tshuktshi) that it is unlikely that both are na-
tive. In which quarter it is applied correctly, is a
point that some future investigator must decide.
The KuskoJcicim. — Locality from Cape Rodney to the
Peninsula of Aliaska. Numbers, according to Baer, about
7,000.
Such is the direction of the Eskimos of the Asiatic
side of America. It is, however, inconvenient to say that
they form the eastern branch of the stock, because, when
we begin with the Atlantic side of America, we find that
they become western ; indeed, they are either one or the
other, according to the point from which we begin to
describe them.
294 AMERICAN MONGOLIDJE.
We now take the other extremity of the Eskimo area,
which is the southernmost point of Greenland, Cape Fare-
well, within a few days1 sail of the European island of
Iceland. Doing this, we move from to east west, and
determine where the two divisions meet.
Greenlanders. — The language of the natives of Green-
land, and those of the coast of Labrador, is mutually in-
telligible ; the similarity in physical appearances and in
manners being equally close.
Proper Eskimo. — These are the inhabitants of the
shores of Hudson's Bay, and the coast of Labrador.
Their dialect is understood at least as far as the Mackenzie-
river, in 137° W. L. ; where Captain Franklin's interpre-
ter, who came from Hudson's Bay, found no difficulty in
being understood by the natives of the parts last men-
tioned. About three degrees westward, however, the
Eskimo of Greenland and Labrador comes to be under-
stood with difficulty at first. Here, then, it is, where
the two divisions of the Eskimo dialects meet.
THE KOLUCH.
I adopt this term in deference to the usage of ethno-
logists, without professing to give a value to it in the
way of classification, since I think it much more likely
that the so-called Koluch languages form a sub-division
of the Eskimo than a separate substantive class of their
own. Geographically^ however, the term means the lan-
guages spoken along the coast of the North-Pacific from
Cook's Inlet to the parts immediately north of Queen
Charlotte's Islands ; languages which are distinguished
from the Eskimo to the north, the Athabascan to the east,
and the Nas and Haidah to the south, and languages which
politically belong to Russian America ; since the Tung-
THE KOLIJCH. 295
aas, which is the southernmost (so-called) Koluch dia-
lect, is the most northern with which the traders of the
Hudson-Bay Company come in contact. The extension
towards the interior seems limited. The particular Ko-
luch dialect best known is that of Sitka, which, in Lis-
iansky's Voyage, is compared with the Kenay, Kadiak,
and Unalashkan. Now it is a fact upon which the pre-
sent author lays considerable stress, that the affinities be-
tween the Sitka and Kenay, which are loth considered as
Koluch, are but little more numerous than those between
the Sitka and Kadiak, the Kenay and Unalaskan, &c.,
where only one is considered as Koluch. The chief
Koluch dialects are as follows : —
The Kenay of CooFs Inlet. — These are about 460
families strong. They assert that they are derived from
the hills of the interior, whence they moved coastwards. In
the way of mythology, they are descended from the raven.
The Atna of the Copper River. — Here the reader
must be cautioned against being misled by the name; as
it will appear again, applied to another division of In-
dians, the Atnas or Shushwap, who are a distinct people
from the Atnas of the Copper River. These last occupy
the river last-named ; where they work in iron, as well
as in copper, burn their dead, and derive their descent
from the raven.
The Koltshani. — These are the Kolvicb.es of the in-
terior, falling into two divisions ; the language of one of
which is intelligible to the Atnas, and the Kenays equally.
The more distant one is savage and inhospitable, with
the credit of indulging in cannibalism. The name seems
to belong to the Atna language ; where Koltshani =
stranger. It also seems the word on which the scien-
tific term, Koluch, has been founded.
296 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
The Ugalents, or Ugalyakhmutsi. — About thirty- eight
families. Locality, King William's Sound, and the parts
around Mount Elias. — The Ugalyakhmutsi are conter-
minous with the Tshugatsi Eskimo, and as (on the sea-
coast at least) the Kenays lie to the north of these last,
there is a partial discontinuity of the Eskimo area. The
difference between the Ugalyakhmutsi, and the Eskimo
tongues is exhibited in the Mithridates. The present
writer considers that it is exceedingly over-rated. In-
deed, from the first investigations which he made upon
the subject, where he compared the Ugalyakhmutsi of the
Mithridates with the Sitka, Kenay, Kadiak, and Unalash-
kan of Lisiansky, he was inclined to place the Ugalents
in the Eskimo class at once — and that in its more limited
extent. Nevertheless, the tables of Baer's Beytrage suf-
ficiently show that it has a closer resemblance to the
Atnah and Kolooch. At all events, its transitional cha-
racter is undoubted. In manners and appearance the
Ugalentses are Koluch, and in their manner of life, mi-
gratory nomades and fishers.
The SitJcans. — Of the Sitka dialect we have numerous
vocabularies ; one by Cook, under the name of the Norfolk
Sound language. The number who speak this, is put by
Mr. Green, an American missionary, at 6500.
The Tungaas. — Of this we have only a short vocabu-
lary of Mr. Tolmie, which is stated by Dr. Scouler,
to exhibit affinities with the Sitkan. This is the case.
Whether, however, these affinities with the languages to
the north of the Tungaas localities, are so much greater
than those with the tongues spoken southwards, as to jus-
tify us in drawing a line between the true Koluch dia-
lects and those that will soon be enumerated, has yet to
be ascertained. Assuming, however, that this is the case,
THE DlGOTHI. 297
and, again, insisting upon the conventional character of
the present class, and the transitional nature of the Ko-
luch languages, I consider that the undoubted Koluch
dialects end in the neighbourhood of Queen Charlotte's
Islands.
Still there are tribes to the back of those on the coast
which have yet to be noticed : —
The InJchuluklait. — Dwelling on the river Chulitna, and
allied to the —
Magimut — who are allied to the —
Inkalit. — These, in one village alone, are 700 strong ;
their language has been said to be a mixture of the Ke-
nay, UnalasMan, and Atna. The Inkalit are neighbours of
the Kuskokwim, with whom they are continually at war.
It is highly probable that the Inkalit language, when
better known, will present the same phenomenon of trans-
ition with the Ugalyakhmutsi.
DOUBTFUL KOLUCHES.
1. THE DlGOTHI (?)
Synonym. — Loucheux.
Locality. — The Peel River, a feeder of the M'Kenzie.
The ethnological position of the Digothi, Loucheux, or Squinters, is uncertain.
Mr. Isbister, who in 1847 laid before the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science a short notice of them, stated that their language was soon learned
by the Eskimo, and vice versa. It was also soon learned by the Chippewyans, and
vice versa. This was prima facie evidence of its intermediate or transitional cha-
racter. More important, however, is the following short vocabulary ; which is
Mr. Isbister's also. Here the closest affinities are with the Kenay, itself a language
of so doubtful a position, that although the present writer considers it to be Ko-
luch, most others isolate it.
ENGLISH. LOUCHEUX. KBNAY,
White man Manah-gool-ait
Indian Tenghie* teena — man.
Eskimo nak-high „
Wind etsee ,,
Head wind newatsee „
Fair wind jeatsee , ,
* The g is -sounded hard.
298 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
ENGLISH. LOUCHEUX. KENAY.
Water tchon* thun-agalgus.
Sun shethie channoo.
Moon shet-sill tlakannoo.
Stars kumshaet ssin.
Meat beh kutskonna.
Deer et-han „
Head umitly aissagge.
Arm tchiegen skona.
Leg tsethan „
Coat chiegee „
Blanket tsthee „
Knife tlay kissaki.
Foot jetly „
Yes eh „
No illuck-wha „
Far nee-jah „
Near neak- wha „
Strong nehaintah „
Cold kateitlee ktckchuly.
Long kawa „
Enough ekcho, ekatarainyo „
Eat beha „
Drink chidet-leh „
Come chatchoo „
Co away eenio „
/ see su
Thou mu nan.
( My) father (se) tsay stukta.
(My) son (se) jay ssi-ja..
{My) daughter (se) zaa ssx-za,.
{My) ivife (te) chiliquah „
(My) brother-in-law . . sundayee „
In physical appearance the Digothi are athletic fine-
looking men, considerably above the average stature,
most of them above six feet high, and well-proportioned.
They have black hair, fine sparkling eyes, moderately
high cheek-bones, regular teeth, and a fair complexion.
Their countenances are handsome and expressive.
2. THE NEHANNI. (?)
Extract from Mr. Isbister. — These range the country between the Russian
settlements on the Stikine River and the Rocky Mountains, where they are
* As the French « in bon.
THE NEHANNI. 299
conterminous with the Carriers of New Caledonia on the south, and the
Dahodinnies of M'Kenzie's River on the west. They are a brave and war-
like race ; the scourge and terror of the country round. It is a curious cir-
cumstance, and not the less remarkable from the contrast to the general rule in
such cases, that this turbulent and ungovernable horde were under the direction
of a woman, who ruled them, too, with a rod of iron, and was obeyed with a
readiness and unanimity truly marvellous. She was certainly a remarkable cha-
racter, and possessed of no ordinary share of intelligence. From the fairness of
her complexion and hair, and the general cast of her features, she was believed to
have some European blood. Whether through her influence or not, the condition
of the females among the Nehannies stands much higher than among the Ameri-
can Indians generally. The proper locality of the Nehanni tribe ia the vicinity
of the sea-coast, where they generally pass the summer. In the winter they
range the country in the interior for the purpose of bartering, or plundering, furs
from the inland tribes ; acting as middlemen between them and the Russian
traders. They agree in general character with the Koloochians, having light
complexions, long and lank hair, fine eyes and teeth, and many of them strong
beards and moustaches. They are not generally tall, but active and vigorous,
bold and treacherous in disposition ; fond of music and dancing, and ingenious
and tasteful in their habits and decorations. They subsist principally on salmon,
and evince a predilection for a fish diet, which indicates their maritime origin.
Like all the north-west tribes, they possess numerous slaves ; inhabitants, it is
understood, of some of the numerous islands which stud the coast, and either taken
in war or bought of the neighbouring tribes.*
The languages which now follow are known but im-
perfectly ; so that the classes which they form are all
provisional, and of uncertain value. It is certainly not
safe to call them Koluch, although they all contain
a notable percentage of Koluch words ; nor yet is it
advisable to throw them all together as members of a
separate division — equivalent to, but distinct from, the
Koluch. For this, they are hardly sufficiently like
each other, and hardly sufficiently unlike those spoken to
the north of them. In other words we are now in one
of those difficult ethnological areas, where we have no
broad and trenchant lines of demarcation, but the pheno-
mena of intermixture instead. This is the coast and a
little beyond the coast of the Pacific, where the common
climatologic conditions presented by a deeply-indented
* Transactions of the British Association, &c., 1847, p. 121.
300 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
sea - board, make this arrangement natural as well as
convenient.
THE HAIDAH DIALECTS OR LANGUAGES.
Locality. — Queen Charlotte's Islands, and the southern extremity of the
Prince of Wales's Archipelago.
Spoken by — a, the Skittegats ; b, Massets ; c, Kumshahas ; d, Kyganie.
CHEMMESYAN.
Locality.— N.L. 55°, sea-coast and islands.
Divisions. — 1. Naaskok, inhabiting Observatory Inlet ; 2. Chemmesyan, in
Dundas's Island, and Stephenson's Island ; 3, 4, Kitshatlah and Kethumish, in
'rincess Royal Islands.
BILLECHULA.
Locality. — The mouth of the Salmon River.
In M'Kenzie's Travels we find a few words from a tribe on the Salmon
River. Their locality is called by M'Kenzie the Friendly Village. By the
aid of Mr. Tolmie's vocabularies we can now place this hitherto unfixed dialect.
It belongs to the Billechoola tongue.
ENGLISH. FRIENDLY VILLAGE. BILLECHOOLA.
Salmon zimilk shimilk.
Dog watts watz.
House zlaachle shmool.
Bark mat yemnez „
Cedar-bark blanket „ tzummi.
Beaver couloun couloun.
Stone aichts quilstolomick.
Water ulkan kullah.
Mat gitscom stuchom.
Bonnet ilcaette kayeete.
HAEELTSUK AND HAILTSA.
Locality. — Sea-coast from Hawkesbury Island to Broughton's Archipelago ;
the northern part of Quadra's and Vancouver's Island (?).
Tribes. — Hyshalla, Hyhysh, Esleytuk, Weekenoch, Nalatsenoch, Quagheuil,
Tlatla-Shequilla, Lequeeltoch.
The language of Fitz-Hugh Sound, of which we find
the numerals in the Mithridates, seems to be Hailtsa. On
the other hand, the termination, -scum, reappears in the
Blackfoot numerals.
HAEELTSUK AND HAEELTSA.
SOI
ENGLISH. Two.
F. Sound malscum.
Haeltzuk malook.
English three.
F. Sound utascum.
Haeltzuk yootook.
English four.
F. Sound moozcum.
Haeltzuk moak.
Billechoola moash.
English five.
F. Sound thekaescum.
Haeltzuk skeowk.
Billechoola tzeiuch.
English six.
F. Sound kitliscum.
Haeltzuk katlowk.
English seven.
F. Sound atloopooskum";
Haeltzuk malthlowsk.
English ten.
F. Sound nighioo.
Haeltzuk aikas.
V
By Mr. Hales, the Hailtsa, of which he gives a vocabu-
lary, differing in some several points from the Haeeltsuk
(although the two words are most likely the same), is
placed, along with the Chemmesyan and Billechula in a
single section, called the Nas class of languages, and pro-
bably this is the right view. The difficulty, however, in
these parts is not to connect one tongue with another, but
to disconnect it from others. The Hailtsa has certainly
affinities with the Chemmesyan, &c., but whether these
are greater than those with the Atna, Skittegat, or
Wakash tongue is doubtful. Probably, however, it is as
Mr. Hales' tables make it.
THE NUTKANS.
Localities. — a. The greater portion of Quadra and Vancouver's Island ;
b. The parts about Cape Flattery, on the continent.
Divisions. — a. Insular. 1 . The Naspatle ; 2. Proper Nutkans ; 3. Tlaoquatsh ;
4. Nittenat. b. Continental — 1. Klasset ; 2. Klallems.
General name for the language — Wakash.
Such is the line of languages from Behring's Straits to the
parts opposite Quadra and Vancouver's Island, as they are
spoken along the sea-coast as far south as Frazer's Eiver ;
concerning which it may also be predicated that they are
spoken along the sea-coast almost exclusively — i.e. that
none of them extends far inland.
302 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
Of those spoken inland, the distribution is very different.
It is, at first, over large areas.
THE ATHABASKANS.
The geographical distribution of the Athabaskans should
be studied along with that of the Eskimo ; since, like this
last, it has an east-and-west, or (if the expression may be
allowed) a horizontal extension. It has, however, an
extension from north to south, or what may be called a
vertical one as well. As a general rule, the southern
limit of the Eskimo is the northern limit of the Athabaskan
area.
ATHABASKANS.
A rea. — Discontinuous .
Divisions. — Northern and southern.
NORTHERN ATHABASKANS.
Conterminous with the Algonkins on the south-east, the Shushwap on the
south-west, the Koluches and Hailtsa west, and the Eskimos north.
Area. — From Hudson's Bay to about 100 miles from the Pacific in 50° 30'
N.L. ; on the Misinissi (Churchill) Peace, Fish, and M'Kenzie's Rivers ; on
the Athabaska, Slave and Bear Lakes ; on the northern portion of the Rocky
Mountains, and on each side of them.
Political Relations. — Hudson's Bay Company — Russia (?).
Divisions (according to Mr. Isbister). — 1. The Chippewyans Proper. 2. The
Beaver Indians. 3. The Daho-dinnis. 4. The Strong Bows. 5. The Hare
Indians. 6. The Dog-ribs. 7. The Yellow Knives. 8. The Carriers.
The Chippewyans Proper. — From Hudson's Bay to the
Lake Athabaska ; speaking a harsh and meagre dialect,
and calling themselves See-eessaw-dinneJi = Rising Sun
Men. These were the first Athabaskans known to Euro-
peans. The name Chippewyan is probably misapplied ; at
any rate, the See-eessaw-dinneh are a different people from
the Chippeways or Ojibbways. In even the early Chippe-
wyan vocabularies of Dobbs and M'Kenzie there is a
sufficiency of Eskimo words to throw suspicion over the
current doctrine as to the great breadth of the line of
demarcation between the Athabaskans and Eskimos.
NORTHERN ATHABASKANS. 303
The Beaver Indians. — The valley of the Peace River,
from the Lake Athabaska to the Rocky Mountains. Their
dialect is the softest and most copious of the Athabaskan
tongues. It is also most mixed with words from the
Cree dialect of the Algonkin.
The Daho-dinnis. — Called from their warlike disposition
the Mauvais Monde, and inhabiting the head-water of
the Riviere-aux-liards.
The Strong Bows. — Mountaineers of their upper part of
the Rocky Mountains ; slightly differing in dialect froni <^
the Daho-dinnis, and still more slightly from the —
I \ \
Hare, or Slave Indians — Occupants of the valley of the
River M'Kenzie, from Slave Lake to Great Bear Lake.
These extend to the Arctic Circle, and consequently, along
with the Dog-ribs, are the most northern of the Athabas-
kans. " Their condition is the most wretched and deplora-
ble that can be imagined. Cannibalism, almost justified
by the extreme necessity of the case, exists to a frightful
extent. It is but just, however, to say, that this practice
is looked upon with horror by the tribe generally ; and
many, rather than resort to this dreadful expedient, put an
end to their own lives. Instances have been known of
parents destroying their own families, and afterwards them-
selves, to avoid this fatal alternative.
" They are almost entirely clothed in the skins of rabbits,
tagged together after the rudest fashion with the ends of
sinew ; hence the name of Hare Indians applied to the
tribe. They have neither tents nor huts of any kind,
living all the year round in the open air. As might be
expected, they are a puny and stunted race, and are
rapidly decreasing in numbers, and must soon disappear
altogether."
The Dog-ribs. — Due-east of the Hare Indians. —
304 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
" They live upon the rein-deer, which frequent their
lands in great numbers, following the migrations of
these animals as closely as if they formed part and parcel
of the herd. They are almost entirely independent of
the whites, and present a marked contrast with their
neighbours of the Hare Tribe. They are well-clothed in
the skins of the rein-deer, and have all the elements
of comfort and Indian prosperity within their reach.
They are a healthy, vigorous, but not very active race,
of a mild and peaceful disposition, but very low in the
^
mental scale, and apparently of very inferior capacity.
There is no reason to think that they are decreasing in
numbers. They receive the name of the Dog-ribs, from a
tradition that they are descended from the dog."
The Yellow Knives. — Called also the Copper Indians, from
occupying, like the Dog-ribs, a portion of the river so called.
The Carriers, TahJcali, or Taculli. — These occupy the
greater portion of New Caledonia, and, of all the Athabas-
kans, they are those that are best known. They are
divided into " eleven clans, or minor tribes, whose names
are, beginning at the south, as follows : — (1) the Tautin, or
TalJcotin; (2) the TsilJcotin, or ChiltoJcin; (3) i\\e NasJcotin;
(4.) the Thetliotin ; (5) the Tsatsnotin ; (6) the Nuladutin;
(7) the Ntshaautin ; (8) the Natlidutin ; (9) the Nikozli-
dutin ; (10) the Tatshidutin ; and (11 ) the Babine Indians.
The number of persons in these clans varies from fifty to
three hundred. All speak the same language, with some
slight dialectical variations. The SiJcani (or Secunnie)
nation has a language radically the same, but with greater
difference of dialect, passing gradually into that of the
Beaver and Chippewyan Indians.
" The Tahkali, though a branch of the great Chippewyan
(or Athabascan) stock, have several peculiarities in their
NORTHERN ATHABASKANS. 305
customs and character which distinguish them from other
members of that family. In personal appearance they
resemble the tribes on the Upper Columbia, though, on the
whole, a better-looking race. They are rather tall, with
a tendency to grossness in their features and figures, par-
ticularly among the women. They are somewhat lighter
in complexion than the tribes of the south.
" Like all Indians, who live principally upon fish, and who
do not acquire the habits of activity proper to the hunting
tribes, they are excessively indolent and filthy, and, as a
natural concomitant, base and depraved in character. They
are fond of unctuous substances, and drink immense
quantities of oil, which they obtain from fish and wild
animals. They also besmear their bodies with grease and
coloured earths. They like their meat putrid, and often
leave it until the stench is, to any but themselves, in-
supportable. Salmon roes are sometimes buried in the
earth and left for two or three months to putrefy, in
which state they are esteemed a delicacy.
The natives are prone to sensuality, and chastity among
the women is unknown. At the same time, they seem to
be almost devoid of natural affection. Children are con-
sidered by them a burden, and they often use means to
destroy them before birth. Their religious ideas are very
gross and confused. It is not known that they have any
distinct ideas of a God, or of the existence of the soul. They
have priests, or doctors, whose art consists in certain
mummeries, intended for incantations. When a corpse is
burned, which is the ordinary mode of disposing of the
dead, the priest, with many gesticulations and contortions,
pretends to receive in his closed hands something, perhaps
the life of the deceased, which he communicates to some
living person, by throwing his hands towards him, and at the
306 AMERICAN MONGOLIDJ-;.
same time blowing upon him. This person then takes the
rank of the deceased, and assumes his name in addition to
his own. Of course the priest always understands to
whom this succession is properly due.
" If the deceased had a wife, she is all but burned alive
with the corpse, being compelled to lie upon it while the fire
is lighted, and remain thus till the heat becomes beyond
endurance. In former times, when she attempted to break
away, she was pushed back into the flames by the relations
of her husband, and thus often severely injured. When
the corpse is consumed, she collects the ashes and deposits
them in a little basket, which she always carries about
with her. At the same time she becomes the servant and
drudge of the relations of her late husband, who exact of
her the severest labour, and treat her with every indignity.
This lasts for two or three years, at the end of which time
a feast is made by all the kindred; and a broad post,
fifteen or twenty feet high, is set up, and covered on the
sides with rude daubs, representing figures of men and
animals of various kinds. On the top is a box in which
the ashes of the dead are placed, and allowed to remain
until the post decays. After this ceremony the widow is
released from her state of servitude, and allowed to marry
again. The Carriers are not a warlike people, though they
sometimes have quarrels with their neighbours, particularly
the tribes of the coast. But these are usually appeased
without much difficulty."'5'*
The TsiJcanni, or Sikani. — The evidence that these are
Athabaskan is taken exclusively from their language. In
the United States Exploring Expedition, the same sentence
which speaks to the similarity of tongue, speaks also to the
difference of manners and customs. —
* United States Exploring Expedition.
NORTHERN ATHABASKANS. 307
" The Sikani, though speaking a language of the same
family, differ widely from the TahJcali in their character
and customs. They live a wandering life, and subsist by
the chase. They are a brave, hardy, and active people,
cleanly in their persons and habits, and in general agreeing
nearly with the usual idea of an American Indian. They
bury their dead, and have none of the customs of the
Tahkali with respect to them."
A tabulated vocabulary of Mr. Howse, publishing by the
Philological Society, is further evidence to the Athabaskau
character of the Tsikanni language.
The Sussees, or Sarsees. — On the head-waters of the
Saskatchewan.
It is not certain that the previous list is exhaustive of
the northern Athabaskans. In Gallatin's enumeration we
have, besides those enumerated —
1. The Northern Indians on Hudson's Bay. — As these
are mentioned in addition to the Chippewyans Proper, it
is fair to suppose that they constitute a variety under that
division.
2. The Birch-rind Indians, living near the Slave Lake,
and probably most closely akin to the Hare Indians.
3. The Thickwood Hunters.
4. The Sheep Indians.
5. The Brushwood Indians.
6. The Nauscud-dennies of M'Kenzie's River.
7. The Slaoucud-dennies of M'Kenzie's River.
8. The Naotetains to the west of Tacullis.
9. The Nagail, or Chin Indians ; are probably Tacullis
under another name.
In the Athabaskan language, dinne = man ,• so that we
now understand the prevalence of that termination.
The Chippewyans Proper are called Saweesaw-dinneh.
x 2
308 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
The Birch-rind, Indians are called Tan-tsawJiot-dinneh.
The Dog-ribs are called Thlingeha-efo'/wwA.
On the other hand, the Thickwood, Sheep, and Brush-
wood Indians are called TZdch-tawoot, Arnbah-tawoot, and
Ts\\\aw-awdoot, respectively ; whilst the Hare Indians are
called Kancho.
Lastly, it should be added that, although Mr. Isbester
makes the Nehannies Koluch, Gallatin places them
amongst the Athabaskans. A vocabulary of their language
would probably settle the point. Such, however, is yet
wanting.
SOUTHERN ATHABASKANS.
Area. — A narrow strip at the mouth of the river Columbia, and along the sea-
coast to the river Umkwa.
Divisions. — 1. Kwalioqwa. 2. Tlatskanai. 3. Umkwa.
1. The Kwalioqwa, north of the river Columbia, from which, and from the
Tlatskanai, they are separated by the Tshinuks. Number, about 100.
2. The Tlatskanai, south of the river Columbia, from which, and from the
Kwalioqwa, they are separated by the Tshinuks. Number, about 100.
3. The Umkwa, occupying the upper part of the river so-called, about lat. 43°.
Number, about 400.
The first vocabulary of this section (one of the Umkwa
language) was collected by Mr. Tolmie. The notice,
however, of its affinities with the Tlatskanai and Kwali-
okwa, and the more important discovery of its Athabaskan
character, is one of many valuable additions made to
Ethnographical Philology by Mr. Hales. I consider, for
my own part, that the following table * justifies his classi-
fication.
ENGLISH. CHIPPEWYAN. TLATSKANAI. UMKWA.
Man dinnie khanane titsun.
Woman chequois tseukeia ekhe.
Father yitah (my) mama stanli.
Mother yinah (my) naa wnla.
Son yt'ayay (my) sikwte-teintsw nwsla . . shashai.
* Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. ii. p. 105.
SOUTHERN ATHABASKANS. 309
ENGLISH. CHirPEWYAN. TLATSKANAI. UMKWA.
Daughter ^tlengai (my) .... slkw-fsakaisla etc.
Head edthie k/iustuma. sagha.
Hair thiegah Motsasea zugha.
Ear ,, AAotskhe tshigha.
Eye nackhay Monakhai naghe.
Nose ,, khointsua mintshesh.
Mouth ., A7;ok\vaitshaale ta.
Tongue edthu Motshutkhltshikhltsaha . . lasom.
Tooth goo (j)l) Motsiakatatkhltsin . .uo.
Hand law Molaa s/daa.
Fingers „ tfMlakhakhatesa .... schlatsune.
Feet cuh (sing.) Moakhastlsukai shke.
Blood dell tutkhl shtule.
House cooen k««t«kh ma.
Axe thylne katstzm sermtl.
Knife bess tekhe natlmi.
Shoes kinchec ke klie.
Sky „ ia ishtshi.
.Sun sail tause sha
Moon sah tawse ighaltshi.
Star „ „ khatlatshe.
Day ,, khnutkhlkante shaitltiti.
Night „ kleak?<t khwtli.
Fire counn tkhlkane khong.
Water tone to tkho.
Rain thinnelsee natkakh natkhlhika.
Snow yath yakhs tatkhliyitkhl.
Earth „ nee nanee.
River tesse taseke khanee.
Stone thaih tshetse seh.
Tree „ twkwn sintshunata.
Meat bid tswtsan isung.
Dog sliengh tkhlin tkhli.
Beaver yah „ sha.
Bear yass tzdswnw shtetkhlshu (black).
Bird „ tsheuse naake
Great unshaw wane mintshaghe.
Cold edyah kwatsakhwtowa skais.
White „ itesina halwkai.
Black . . , dellzin tkhlsune h wldji .
Red delicouse tkhltsohwe t w tklil.
1 ne sik shi.
Thou nee nannuk na.
If, „ ianuk hatake.
One slachy tkhlie aitkhla.
Two naghur nat?«ke nakhwk.
310 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
ENGLISH. CHIPPEWVAN. TLATSKANAI. UMKWA.
Three taghy tage Vtak.
Four dengky twntshe twntshik.
Five sasoulachee tswkwalae shwullak.
Six alkitarhyy kwastanahe wwsthane.
Seven „ shostshita hoitahi.
Eight olkideinghy tshanivaha nakanti.
Nine cakinahanothna . . tkhleweet aitkhlanti.
Ten canothna kwuneshin kwuneza.
We now come to a series of languages which, like the
Koluch, and unlike the Athabaskan and Eskimo, have no
great extension from west to east, and which are spoken on
the western side of Rocky Mountains only. Hence we
get a great geographical line of demarcation ; whilst the
river systems with which we deal are those of Frazer"s
River and the Columbia, rather than of the Peace, the
M'Kenzie, the Saskatchewan, and the Missinissi rivers.
West of the Rocky Mountains, the ethnological affinities
run from north to south (or vertically} until we reach the
area of the great Paduca family ; one, in respect to its
direction and distribution, of the most remarkable in
America.
The ethnology of the parts between the Pacific, the
Rocky Mountains, the Northern Athabaskan, and the
Paduca area, is very nearly the ethnology of Oregon.
Here we find two great families ; and by their sides four
or five isolated, or nearly isolated, languages, a phenomenon
for which we are now prepared.
The first of the great divisions is one that is conveniently
called —
THE TSIHAILI.
Synonym. — Tsihaili-Selish. Hales.
Area. — Discontinuous. Chiefly the lower part of Eraser's River, and the parts
between that and the Columbia.
Divisions. — 1. Tribes to the north of the Columbia, continuous. 2. Tribes to
the south of the Columbia, either wholly or nearly isolated.
Sub-divisions. — Value of the classification unascertained. a. Continuous
THE TSIHAILI. 311
Tsihaili. 1. Shuswap. 2. Salish. 3. Skitsuish. 4. Piskwaus. 5. Kawit-
chen. 6. Skwali. 7. Checheeli. 8. Kowelits. 9. Noosdalum.
b. Isolated, or nearly isolated, Tsihaili. — The Nsietshawus, or Killamucks (?).
Conterminous, with the a. Hailtsa, b. Nass, e. Athabaskan Taculli and Tsikunni
on the north ; d. Kitunaha, on the east ; e. Sahaptin ; /'. Tshinuk on the south.
The isolated Tsihaili surrounded by Tshinuks, Tlatskani (discontinous Athabas-
kans) and Jakons.
The Shushwap, or Atnaks, are the northernmost of the
Tsihaili, and are conterminous with the Taculli. Their
number, according to Mr. Hales, is about 1200, increased
from 400.
The Salish. — The Salish language falls into three dia-
lects ; those of «, the Kullelspelm or Ponderays (Pend1
oreilles), 5, the Spokan, improperly called Flat-heads
(since they have no such habit as the one suggested by
the name), and c, the Okanagan.
A fair sample of the Salish traditions is the following.
A ceremony called by them (the Salish) Sumask, " deserves
notice for the strangeness of the idea on which it is
founded. They regard the spirit of a man as distinct
from the living principle, and hold that it may be sepa-
rated for a short time from the body without causing
death, or without the individual being conscious of the
loss. It is necessary, however, in order to prevent fatal
consequences, that the lost spirit should be found and re-
stored as quickly as possible. The conjuror, or medicine-
man, learns, in a dream, the name of the person who has
suffered this loss. Generally there are several at the same
time in this condition. He then informs the unhappy
individuals, who immediately employ him to recover their
wandering souls. During the next night they go about
the village from one lodge to another singing and dancing.
Towards morning they enter a separate lodge, which is
closed up, so as to be perfectly dark ; a small hole is
then made in the roof, through which the conjuror, with
312 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
a bunch of feathers, brushes in the spirits in the shape
of small bits of bone, and similar substances, which he
receives on a piece of matting. A fire is then lighted,
and the conjuror proceeds to select out from the spirits
such as belong to persons already deceased, of which there
are usually several ; and should one of them be assigned
by mistake to a living person he would instantly die. He
next selects the particular spirit belonging to each person,
and causing all the men to sit down before him, he takes
the spirit of one (i.e., the splinter of bone, shell, or wood,
representing it), and placing it on the owner's head, pats
it, with many contortions and invocations, till it descends
into the heart and resumes its proper place. When all
are thus restored the whole party unite in making a con-
tribution of food, out of which a public feast is given, and
the remainder becomes the perquisite of the conjuror.
" Like the Sahaptin, the Salish have many childish
traditions connected with the most remarkable natural
features of the country, in which the prairie-wolf generally
bears a conspicuous part. What could have induced them
to confer the honours of divinity upon this animal cannot
be imagined ; they do not, however, regard the wolf as
an object of worship, but merely suppose that in former
times it was endowed with preternatural powers, which
it exerted after a very whimsical and capricious fashion.
Thus, on one occasion, being desirous of a wife (a common
circumstance with him), the wolf, or the divinity so called,
visited a tribe on the Spokan River and demanded a young
woman in marriage. His request being granted, he pro-
mised that thereafter the salmon should be abundant with
them, and he created the rapids which give them facilities
for taking the fish. Proceeding further up, he made of
each tribe on his way the same request, attended with a
THE TSIHAILI. 313
like result ; at length he arrived at the territory of the
Skitsuish (Cceur cTaldne) ; they refused to comply with his
demand, and he therefore called into existence the great
falls of the Spokan, which prevent the fish from ascend-
ing to their country." *
In the Salish tribes we have the best sample of a true
inland Oregon family, a section of the American Indians
distinguished by certain negative as well as positive
characters which require notice.
a. As contrasted with the Indians to the north of them
they have a milder climate, are south of the true fur-bear-
ing countries, and below the line of the reindeer.
5. From the islanders and coast tribes of the Pacific
they are distinguished by the necessary absence of mari-
time habits, and a diet consisting to a great extent of sea
fish.
c. To the families on the east of the Eocky Mountains
they stand in the remarkable opposition of being imperfect
agriculturists rather than hunters. In other words, in
getting beyond the range of the Rocky Mountains we get
beyond the country of the prairie and the localities of the
buffalo ; as a set-off to which, although the botany of the
Oregon is at present but imperfectly known, the whole
district is described as being pre-eminently productive of
edible roots ; not, however, in respect to the number of
individuals (for the land is poor), but in respect to the
variety of their species.
Oregon, then, at least in its central parts, is the area
of an undeveloped agriculture ; and (probably like other
tribes besides) the Salish look to the returning seasons
not, as in Siberia, Arctic America, and the parts to the
east of the Rocky Mountains, with a view to the migra-
• * United States Exploring Expedition — Ethnology, p. 298.
314
AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
tions of the buffalo and the reindeer, but with respect to
the production of their successive vegetable esculents ;
added to which their river-system gives them, in its sea-
son, a supply of fish.
Upon this point, even if external evidence were want-
ing, we might find proof in the Salish names of the sea-
sons (with which the Piskwaus agree), a list which gives
us in the months of the camass-root and the exhausted sal-
mon the extreme seasons of want and plenty.
MEANING IN
ENGLISH.
ENGLISH MONTH.
Skwusus Siistikwo ....
Skiniramun Skwusus ....
Skuputskiltin .... Skiniramun . .
Skasulku Skaputru ....
Katsosumptun . . . ; Spatlom ....
Stsaok Stagamawus . .
Kupukkalotltin . . Ittlwa
Silump Saanttllkwo . .
Tshepomtum Silamp
Parpattllitlen .... Skilues
Skaai Skaai
Siistkwu Keshmakwaln
December and Jan.
. cold January and Feb
. a certain herb February & March
.snow gone March and April.
. bitter-root April and May.
• going to root-ground .May and June.
. camass-root June and July.
. . hot July and August.
. .gathering berries . . August and Sept.
. exJtausted salmon
•dry
. September and Oct.
. October and Nov.
. snow November and Dec.
The Piskwaus. — " On the main Columbia, between the
Salish proper, and the Wallawallahs below Fort Okana-
gan. A miserable, beggarly people, great thieves. Their
country very poor in game and roots." — Transactions of the
American Ethnological Society, p. 13.
The SJcitsuish. — Coeur d"1 alene " About 400 souls live
on the lake of that name above the falls of the Spokan,
have no salmon, raise potatoes, and have a tendency to
cultivate.'1 — Transactions of the American Ethnological
Society, p. 13.
The Kawichen, SJcwali, Checheeli, Kowelits, Kwaintl,
Kwenawitl and Nusdalum. — The exact relations of these
THE TSIHAILI. 315
tribes to each other, as well as their position in the Tsihaili
family, is unascertained.
Geographically they agree in forming the south-western
division of the stock, and in occupying the peninsula (or
acte ) between the mouth of the Columbia, Puget's Sound,
and Cape Flattery ; where, in the latter locality, they are
in contact with the Wakash Klassets and Klallems, and,
in the former, with the Tshinuks.
Philologically the Atna, as tested by the first known
vocabulary of the language, a short one of M'Kenzie''s, is
closely allied to the Nusdalum. But, then, on the other
hand the Nusdalum, Kawichen and Skwali (or Squally-
arnish) are by no means so like each other as are the two
vocabularies first mentioned.
Again, Dr. Scouler gives reasons against disconnecting
this branch of the Tsihaili from the Wakash dialects of
Quadra and Vancouver's Island, with which he shows that
they have at least the following words in common.
NGLISH. CHKKEELI. WAKASH.
Plenty haya aya.
No wake wik.
Water chuck • • tchaak.
Good closh hooleish.
Bad peshak peishakeis.
Man tillicham tchuckoop.
Woman cloochamen tlootsemin.
Child tanass tannassis.
Now clahowiah tlahowieh.
Come sacko tchooqua.
Slave mischemas mischemas.
What are you doing ? . ekta mammok akoots-ka-mamok.
What are you saying 1 .ekta-wawa au-kaak-wawa.
Let me see nannanitch nannanitch.
Sun ootlach opeth.
Sky say a sieya.
Fruit camas chamas.
To sell makok makok.
Understand commatax comma tax.
316 AMERICAN MONGOLID/E.
For the particular dialect spoken by another Tsihaili
tribe, and placed by Dr. Scouler in the present section,
we have no vocabulary, viz. : the Commagsheak in the
northern part of the Gulf of Georgia.
ISOLATED (or nearly Isolated) TSIHAILI. (?)
The Nsietslwivuss. — Occupants of the sea-coasts to the south of the Columbia.
Numbers in 1840 about 700. Conterminous with the Tshinuks, on the north,
the Jakon on the south, and the Tlatskanai on the east. — Appearance and
manners of the Tshhenuks.
Synonym — K illamuk .
The elements of doubt denoted by the note of interro-
gation (?) consist in the discrepancy between the evidence
of the Killamuk language, and the evidence of the Kil-
lamuk physiognomy ; the former being Tsihaili, the latter
Tshinuk. Hence, whilst Mr. Hales makes them the
former, Dr. Scouler classes them with the latter.
Now comes a small family, falling into no minor divi-
sions, and spread over an area of but third-rate magni-
tude.
THE KUTANIS (KITUNAHA).
Synonym. — Flat-bows.
Locality. — Banks of the Kutani River, one of the feeders of the Columbia.
Conterminous — with the Blackfoots, Ponderay, Salish, Shushwap, and Carrier
Athabaskans.
The Kutanis are described by Simpson as undersized,
irregularly fed, poor, and squalid ; the women being plainer
than the men. Irregularly fed upon fish and venison, they
dig up the kammas and mash it into a pulp. This, in times
of unusual scarcity, they flavour with a sort of moss or
lichen collected from the trees. On the other hand they
are sharp-sighted in making bargains, prudent enough to
be the best economisers in their district of the fur-animals,
steady in their fidelity to the whites, and so brave, under
CHINUKS. 317
attacks, as to hold their own against the powerful Black-
foots of the eastern side of the Bocky Mountains.
According to Mr. Hales their numbers are about 400 ;
they are great hunters, furnishing much peltry, and
in appearance and character resembling the Indians east
of the Rocky Mountains rather than those of the Ore-
gon.
These accounts agree ; whilst the evidence of language
as known from the vocabularies of the American Exploring
Expedition, and a MS. vocabulary of Mr. Howse's dis-
connect them from the tribes around them.
In physical appearance they are contrasted by Simpson
with the Salish Ponderays. These last struck him with
the stateliness of their manners ; and so much did they
show to advantage, that he considered them as the finest-
looking men he had seen, next to the Indians of the plains.
CHINUKS (TSHINUK).
Locality. — Mouth of the Columbia.
Divisions. — 1. Chinuks Proper, on the southern bank of the Columbia, at its
mouth. 2. Klatsops, at Point Adams, south of the Chinuks. 3. Kathlamut, on
the south bank of the Columbia, above the Chindks. 4. Wakaikam. 5. Wat-
lala, or Upper Chinuk, farthest up the river. 6. Nihaloitih.
Physical Appearance. — " The personal appearances of the Chinook differs so
much from that of the aboriginal tribes of the United States, that it was difficult
at first to recognise the affinity. Taking them collectively, they are even inferior
in stature to the tribes of Interior Oregon ; the general form is shorter and more
squat, and the face is rounder and broader when viewed in front. Instances
occurred of a fairness of complexion, which I have not seen in other parts of abo-
riginal America ; and in young children, the colour was often not strikingly
deeper than among Europeans.
*' The oblique eye I have scarcely noticed in other parts of America ; nor such
frequent difficulty in distinguishing men from women, whether in youth or age.
The arched nose, was, however, very prevalent among the Chinooks. The beard
was not always absolutely wanting, but it occasionally attained the length of an
inch or more. One man had both beard and whiskers, quite thin, but full two
inches long ; and in other respects he much resembled some representations I have
seen of the Esquimaux." * * * "The head is artificially flattened in infancy;
but as tlie children grow up, ilie cranium tends to resume its natural shape, so that
318 AMERICAN MONGOLIDJE.
tlie majority of grown persons hardly manifest tlie existence of the practice. One
effect, however, seemed to be permanently distinguishable, in the unusual breadth
of the face." — Pickering, p. 27,
We have already, in speaking of the Salish, met with
the word Flat-head, and, although in that particular case,
it was misapplied, it is still an important term in American
ethnology, since more than one family of American Indians
has the practice of artificially flattening the head. This
we meet with, for the first time, amongst the Tshinuks,
the true Flat-heads of those parts.
The process itself was witnessed by Pickering. In
one of the stockaded villages of the Chinuks, where the
influence of the missionaries had so far found its way as
for some of the houses to stand in a small cultivated en-
closure, of about a quarter of an acre in size, an infant
was confined to a wooden receptacle, with a pad tightly
bandaged over the forehead and eyes, so that it was alike
impossible for it to see or move. He also observed
that when the child was suspended according to usage, the
head was actually lower than the feet.
So much for the children. The adults improve upon
Nature by piercing the septum of the nose and putting a
ring through it, by ear-rings, and by painting the face — in
default of paint, by smearing it with soot, the marks being
after a pattern. A black and dull red paint, with which
they ornament their canoes, hats, and masks, are aboriginal,
the others procured from traders. A sail, also, seen in one
of the larger boats was considered not native, but copied
from the Russians. In other respects the management of
their canoes, as well as the construction, was skilful ; so
were some of the contrivances both for fowling and fishing.
For the former purpose tall masts were set up to intercept
by means of connecting nets (?) the water-fowl at night.
CHINUKS. 319
Sturgeon were speared or noosed ; the darts used for kill-
ing fish being double-headed. The capture of whales, an
exploit never attempted by even the most enterprising of
the Polynesians, is attempted by the Chinuks.
The art, however, of platting, or weaving, seems to be
that wherein the Chinuks have the best claim for excel-
lence. Still it is doubtful whether, in this respect, they
are above the level of the American tribes in general.
The mats are made of the scirpus lacustris placed side by
side, and strung at intervals. The wool of the mountain
goat is woven into blankets, marked, in the way of pattern,
with angular figures, coloured black and red. The former
seem to be made by changing the material, and substituting
the black hair of the dog for that of the goat.
Carving in claystone is another Chiniik art. So many,
however, of the specimens in museums are made in imi-
tation of imported articles that the original patterns, con-
sisting generally in the representation of grotesque imagi-
nary quadrupeds, are nearly extinct.*
I shall close the account of the Tshinuks with a notice
of the Lingua Franca, taken from Mr. Hales, which is
now in the actual process of formation in the parts about
the mouth of the Columbia. It first began to be deve-
loped in the harbour of Nutka Sound ; from the language
of which district a few words were adopted by the early
English traders. When the intercourse with the inhabit-
ants of the Columbia began, these Nutka words became
transferred to the Chinuk country ; and the three lan-
guages which then contributed elements to the so-called
jargon, were the Nutka, the Chinuk, and the English.
From the second of these tongues were taken, besides cer-
tain substantives and adjectives, the first ten numerals, the
* Pickering — Races of Men.
320 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
word for a hundred, twelve pronouns, and about twenty
adverbs and prepositions. Additions were also supplied
from the French of the Canadian wyageurs.
Some of the processes by which this medium of commu-
cation has been formed deserve study ; and they have
been well exhibited in the philological portion of the United
States Exploring Expedition, the source of the present
information.
1 . For a language to be spoken by three different nations
it is convenient to admit only such articulations as are
common to the three languages. An approach to this
occurs here. The harsh Chinuk sounds are modified. The
French nasal is dropped. The English tsh becomes dzh ;
perhaps, in the mouth of a Frenchman, zh.
2. In names of objects common to both languages, the
choice seems to be determined by the hardness or easiness
of the pronunciation. For man, sun, moon, stick, snow,
warm, &c., the terms are English ; although the equiva-
lents were part and parcel of the Chinuk and Nutkan,
equally. They were, however, pre-eminently unpronounce-
able, being kottlleliJcum, ottllatl. Sec. On the other hand
where the Indian is moderately adapted to European organs
terms from both languages become current, e. g.
ENGLISH. JARGON.
Water tsok and wdta
Cold tsis ., kol
Fire olapitski „ paia.
3. Grammar is, as we should expect it to be, at its
minimum amount.
a. b. There are no signs of either the possessive case or
the plural number. The former is determined by the con-
struction only' — Jcata nem maiJca papa — what name thou
father — wh(-af) is (the) name (of) th(-y) father. The
latter is sometimes denoted by haiu = many.
CHItfUKS.
321
c. In general the tense of verbs is to be discovered by
the context. When it is absolutely necessary to fix the
time, certain adverbs are resorted to ; as, now, formerly, to-
morrow. The future sense is expressed by tuM = wish.
d. The notion of condition is expressed by the Chinuk
klunas = perhaps, or by the English pos = suppose. The
only other conjunction in the language is pi = the French
puis=and, or, then, &c.
e. The substantive verb is generally (as in the normal
state of the Semitic languages) omitted — maika pilton =
thou art foolish.
The changes that European words undergo may be col-
lected from the following vocabulary.
WORDS OF ENGLISH ORIGIN.
Boston, American*
Paia — fire.
Bot — boat.
Pilton$— foolish.
Hakatshum — handkerchief.
Pepa — paper.
Haus — house.
Pos — suppose.
Klai — clay.
Shut— shirt.
Klas — glass.
Stutshin — sturgeon.
Kintshosh — Englishman. t
Tala — silver, dollar.
Kitl — kettle.
Tlai— cry.
Kol — coal.
Tshaket — jacket.
Lek — lake.
Tumola— to-morrow.
Lesi — lazy.
Warn — warm.
Lum — rum.
Wata — water.
OlumanJ — father.
Win — wind.
WORDS OF FRENCH ORIGIN.
Kapo— capot.
Lamestin — la medecine.
Kaset — casette.
Lamontai — le montaigne.
Kuli — courir.
Lasuai la soie.
Labush — la bouche.
Latapl — la table.
Lahash — la hache.
Lawie — la vieille.
Lakles — la graisse.
Lebiskwi — le biscuit.
Lalan — la langue.
Liman — la main.
* From the Capital of Massachusetts.
t King George.
\ Old Man.
§ The name of a European who went mad.
322 AMERICAN MONGOLIDjE.
Letan — les dents.
Loup-marin — loup marin*
Pasianks — Franqais.
Putali — poudre.
Sawasht — Indian.
Shante — chanter.
Seapot — chapeau
Siapul— ditto.
ONOMATOPOEIC WORDS.
Hehe — laugh.
Liplip — boil.
Tiktik— watch.
Ting-ting — bell.
Turn — heavy noise.
Tum-wata —cataract.
The power of combination is greatly developed. Al-
most every verb and adjective may receive a modification
in its meaning by the prefixion of the word mamuk = make
or cause. Thus —
Tshako:J:=coine mamak tshako i=bring.
KlatawaJ =go „ klatawa^send.
Kikvvili$ =: below „ kikwili =bury.
Pepa=:paper „ pepa = write.
That of composition is equally so ; e.g. ship-man = sailor,
ship-stik = spar, stik-skin = bark, sel-Jiaus (sail-house) =
tent, &c.
" The place at which the jargon is most in use is at
Fort Vancouver. At this establishment five languages are
spoken by about five hundred persons — namely, the English,
the Canadian French, the Tshinuk, the Cree or Knisteneau,
and the Hawaiian. The three former are already accounted
for ; the Cree is the language spoken in the families of
many officers and men belonging to the Hudson's Bay
Company, who have married half-breed wives at the posts
east of the Rocky Mountains. The Hawaiian is in use
among about a hundred natives of the Sandwich Islands,
who are employed as labourers about the fort. Besides
these five languages there are many others — the Tsihailish,
Wallawalla, Kalapuya, Naskwali, &c., which are daily
heard from natives who visit the fort for the purpose of
trading. Among all these individuals, there are very few
* The Seal. t Savage.
± Nootkan words. $ Chinuk.
CATHLASCOU. 323
who understand more than two languages, and many who
speak only their own. The general communication is,
therefore, maintained chiefly by means of the jargon,
which may be said to be the prevailing idiom. There are
Canadians and half-breeds married to Chinook women, who
can only converse with their wives in this speech ; and it is
the fact, strange as it may seem, that many young children
are growing up to whom this factitious language is really
the mother tongue, and who speak it with more readiness
and perfection than any other."
CATHLASCOU.
Locality. — From the Falls of the Columbia to Wappatoo Island, falling into a
number of small tribes.
The third of the larger divisions of the Oregon Indians
is that of the —
SAHAPTIN.
Area, — The northern bank of the Columbia from the Tshinfik country, at the
mouth, to the junction of the river Lewis. The valley of the river Lewis (or Snake
River). As far east as the Rocky Mountains.
Conterminous with the Selish Tsihaili to the north, theUpsaroka (Crows) to
the east, the Paducas and Wailatpu to the south, the Skwali Tsihaili and the
Watlala Tshinuks to the west.
Divisions. — 1. Walla wallas, Kliketat. 2. Proper Sahaptin or Nez-perces.
3. Pelus. 4. Yakemas. 5. Cayus (?).
Numbers.— About 4000.
Aliment — Roots, salmon.
Extract from Mr. Hales. — " Both the Sahaptin and Wallawallas compress
the head, but less than the tribes on the coast."
The Kliketat are distinguished by having the lower part
of the septum of the nose cut away.*
The imperfect industry of the Sahaptin tribes is con-
sidered to be on a higher level than that of either the
Tshinuks or Tsihaili ; so that, in this respect, they stand
the first of the Oregon aborigines.
* Pickering, from notes of Messrs. Agate and Brackeridge.
324 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
The same applies to their susceptibility of religious
influences. With no family have the efforts of the mis-
sionaries been more successful than with the Nez-perces.
In physical appearance they are more like the In-
dians to the east of the Eocky Mountains, than any tribes
hitherto described.
Lastly, the easternmost Sahaptin are on the limits of the
buffalo area ; and as such are partially hunters, as well
as common to the two sides of the Eocky Mountains.
It is now convenient to return to the Pacific, and to fol-
low from west to east the tribes that lie south of the area
already described.
THE YAKON.
Locality.— A strip of sea-coast between the Nsietshawus (Tsihaili) the Tlat-
skanai, the Kalapuya, the Umkwa, and the Saintskla.
Numbers. — About 700.
KALAPUYA.
Locality. — Valley of the Upper Willamet.
Conterminous with the Watlala Tshinuks, the Molele, the Tlatskanai and
Umkwa Athabaskans.
Number. — About 500.
Dialects. — 1. Proper Kalapuya. 2. The Tuhwallatie or Follatie. 3. Yam-
kallie of Mr. Tolmie. — How far are these the same ?
MOLELE.
Locality. — Parts about Mount Hood and Mount Vancouver, south of the
Columbia.
Conterminous with the Watlala Tshinuks, the Kalapuya, the Cayus, and the
Lutuami.
Numbers. — "Reduced in 1841, by disease, to twenty souls. Probably now
extinct." — Hales.
Divisions $ — 1. Molele. 2. Cayus (?)
CAYUS. (?)
Locality. — South bank of the Columbia, between the Molele and the Paduca
Shoshonies.
Numbers. — About 500 good warriors, with extensive pasturage and large
droves of horses, one chief having 2,000. — Hales.
The note of interrogation denotes that the ethnological
position of the Cayus is ambiguous. Mr. Hales makes
them Molele, Dr. Scouler, Sahaptin.
THE SAINTSKLA. 325
LUTUAMI.
Synonym. — Tlamatl or Clamet.
Locality. — Head-waters of the river Clamet, due south of the Molele, and con-
terminous with the Umkwa on the west, the Wihinast Shoshonies on the east, and
the Palaiks and Shastis on the south.
We are now approaching a series of tribes known by
little more than their names. Beginning at the sea-coast
to the south of the strip occupied by the Yakon, and in
the immediate neighbourhood of the Umkwa, country, we
find in proceeding from west to east —
THE SAINTSKLA.
Locality. — South of the Yakon, between the Umkwa and the sea.
THE TOTOTUNE.
Locality. — Sea-coast south of the Saintskla.
THE KILLIWASHAT.
Locality. — Mouth of the Umkwa.
THE TSALEL.
Locality. — Middle course of the Umkwa.
THE KAUS.
Locality. — Between the river Umkwa and the river Clamet, or (ethnologically)
between the Killiwashat and the Lutuami.
SHASTI.
Locality. — South-west of the Lutuami.
PALAIK.
Locality. — South-east of the Lutuami, and conterminous with the Shasti.
The list of the tribes and families of the Oregon ter-
ritory, is now, with one exception, complete, at least
according to the present state of our knowledge ; whilst
the section that still stands over for notice, extends so far
beyond it, and is in other respects so remarkable in its
distribution, that it forms an ethnological break.
HenCe, although in a purely descriptive ethnography
it would be advisable to take the tribes of California in
immediate succession to those of Oregon, and those of
Mexico next in order to the Californian, the present
arrangement will be different, and the transition will be
326 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
from the Oregon Indians to the Indians on the east of the
Rocky Mountains. This departure from the strict
line of ethnological continuity, is demanded in the pre-
sent volume ; because the question as to the origin of the
American population, being considered of so much more
importance than the mere description of different tribes,
the arrangement follows the order, in which the reader
requires facts as a basis for his reasoning, rather than the
absolute sequence of ethnological relationship. This ac-
counts for certain departures, which may possibly have
been noticed, from the form and method of description
adopted in the ethnology of Asia ; it also is a reason for
sometimes placing together groups on the score of differ-
ence rather than likeness. Such is the case here. The
classes about to be noticed follow those that have
already been considered, not because they are closely
related, but because they present marks of disconnection
which are necessary to be known and appreciated pre-
vious to any argument upon subjects like the unity or non-
unity of the American population, or its connexion or
wow-connexion with the population of the Old World. In
other words, as the nearest affinities of the Oregon tribes
are with the Californian, the present order of sequence is
artificial rather than natural.
As to the line itself which thus diverts our inquiries
from the true ethnological sequence, it is the area of a
family already * mentioned — the area of ihePaduca tribes.
Of this the peculiarity is as follows. It begins with the
country of the Wihinast, is separated from the Pacific by
the comparatively small areas of the Wailatpu, Molele,
Kalapuya, and Yakon, and extends in a south-east direc-
tion as far as the Gulf of Mexico. Hence, with the
* See p. 310.
PADUCA LIMIT. 327
exception of a narrow tract on the Lower Columbia, it runs
from sea to sea ; so separating all the numerous sections of
the Indians of the United States and Canada from those
of Spanish America, i. e. from those of Mexico wholly,
and from those of California partially.
This gives us a limit for the parts about to be noticed,
which, roughly speaking, constitute —
• Politically — the United States and Canada —
Physically — the river-systems of the St. Lawrence, the
Red River, and the Mississippi, and also of those rivers
which, like the Potomac, fall into the Atlantic —
Eihnologically — the country included between the Eskimo,
Athabaskan, Kutaui, Salish, Sahaptin, and Paduca areas.
Concerning this it may be said that the ocean on one side
is hardly a more definite boundary than the Rocky Moun-
tains on the other, so truly do they, as a physical divi-
sion, coincide with the ethnological one, — at least for the
parts between the Athabaskans and Paducas.
The climate of the area may be measured by the fact of
its containing Florida on the South, and Labrador on the
North, the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, and the coasts
of Hudson's Bay.
The east-and-west conditions are less self-evident ; the
two most important differences being that between the
parts east, and that between the parts west of the
Mississippi. Speaking roughly, the former is the country
of the forest, the latter of the prairie ; the former the
seat of an incomplete agriculture, the latter the range of
the buffalo.
The divisions of the American population that occupy,
or occupied, this area, are of unascertained value ; I
shall give them, in the first instance, nearly according to
the classification and nomenclature of Gallatin's standard
328 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
dissertation in the Archseologia Americana. Some of these
will be large, some small ; some like the Turk, some like the
Dioscurian ; phaenomena for which we are now prepared.
The first in the list, single handed, takes up more than
half the whole area.
ALGONKINS.
Synonyms. — Lenapian, Wapanachkirrmew of the east. This is said by Hecke-
welder to have been their national and collective name. Probably, however,
it was so only for the tribes on the Atlantic.
Distribution. — East and west from the Rocky Mountains to Newfoundland ;
north and south, from Labrador to the Carolinas. Breadth greatest in its nor-
thern part, decreasing towards the south.
Area. — Newfoundland, part of Labrador, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, Upper
and Lower Canada, New Brunswick, south-eastern part of the Hudson's Bay
territory, the boundary line between British North America and the United
States, the north-western part of the Missouri territory, part of the Wisconsin
territory, parts of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, &c., the
New England States, Virginia, Kentucky (?), North Carolina.
Divisions.— a. Bethucks. 6. Central Algonkins. c. Shiennes. d. Black-
foots. Classification provisional.
a. Bethucks. — Locality Newfoundland. Probably extinct. Not hitherto
recognised as Algonkin,
b. Central Algonkins. — 1. The Crees, Knisteneaua. Klisteno, or Kilistlicno.
Native name, NeJiethowuck— exact people. Situation, the river-system of the rivers
Nelson, Salmon, and Albany, falling into Hudson's Bay.
2. Ojibways, on the south and west sides of Lake Superior, south of the
3. Algonkins Proper.
4. Nipissing. — Closely allied tribes on the sides of the Lake of the Two
Mountains, in the district of Montreal.
5. Ottau-as. — On the river Ottawa, in the islands of Lake Superior. Northern
part of Michigan. Closely allied to the Proper Algonkins.
6. Montagnards, Mountaineers. — The French name and its translation, of the
name of the tribes between Montreal and the mouth of the St. Lawrence.
7. Scoffts — Nascopies. — The Algonkins of Labrador. Conterminous with the
Eskimo.
8. Shcsliatapoosh — Ditto.
9. Abenakis. — In the state of Maine, in the valley of the Kennebec.
10. Etchemin. — From whom the state of Maine, took its name. A tribe of
these occupy the valley of the St. John's River, in New Brunswick.
1 1 . Passamaquoddy. — Maine. A branch of the Etchemin.
12. — Micmacs. — New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, parts of Labra-
dor and Newfoundland.
13. Penobscot. — Maine.
THE ALGONKINS. 329
14. Messisaugis. — North of Lake Ontario, at its junction with the St. Lawrence.
15,16. Pequod and Mohicans. — Extinct. In 1 674, in Connecticut.
17. Narraganset. — Extinct. In 1674, in Rhode Island.
18. Massachusetts. — Extinct. In 1 674, in the state so called.
1.9, 20,21, 22, 23. — The Pawkunnawkuts (or Wampanoag), the Pawtztcket, the
Pennakuk, the Nipmuk, the Montaug. — Extinct. In 1674, in Long Island. The
language of these Indians is represented by Jonathan Edwards'" Grammar of the
Mohican, and by Eliot's translation of the Bible.
24. — Lenni-Lenapi, or Delawares. — Three tribes, a. the Unami, or Turtle.
6. The Minsi or Wolf. c. The Unalachtigo, or Turkey.
25. — The Monakans(?) — Extinct. Virginia, one day's journey beyond the
Falls, at Richmond. People of the high country as opposed to the Powhattans
of the low — said to build stone houses.
The Indians of Virginia, especially the Powhattans, will be noticed in the se-
quel as affording a measure of the civilization of the Algonkins.
26. The Pamticoes ( Pamticoughs). — South Carolina. This is the southern-
most limit of the Eastern Algonkins.
The list is now continued from the south-eastern boundary of the Ojibways,
and from the parts south of Lake Superior, and west of Lake Michigan.
27. The Menomeni. — Due south of Lake Superior, from which they are sepa-
rated by the Ojibways.
28. 29. The Sauks ~ u-hiie-clay and the Ottogami = foxes. These last are
also called Musqkuakuik=zred-clay.
30. The Kickapoos. — Southern part of Illinois. Closely allied to the Sauks and
Foxes.
31. The Potawotomi. — South of Lake Michigan.
32. Tlie Shaumo. — The most south of the Western Algonkins, being south
of the Ohio, in the state of Kentucky. Now removed to the west of the
Mississippi, to a reserve immediately south of that of the Delawares.
33, 34, 35, 36, 37. — Illinois Indians=the Miami, Piankeshaws, Kaskkaias (?)*,
Cabokias, Tamaronas, Peorias, and Mitchigami.
c. Shyennes. — Between the head-waters of the Yellow-stone River and the River
Platte. Conterminous with the Upsaroka, Pawnees, and probably the northern
Shoshonies. As such, isolated from the other Algonkins.
d. Blackfoot Algonkins. — Head- waters of the south branch of the Saskatchawan,
and extended as far west as the Rocky Mountains, by which they are divided
from the Kutanis. Bounded on the north by the Athabaskans, the south by the
Upsarokas (Sioux), the east by the Ahnenin and Crees. The Blackfoots have
been but recently recognised as Algonkin.
The numerous details of this great division prevent
anything beyond the doubtful points of the classification
being noticed. These apply to three members of it, the
Bethuck, the Shyennes, and the Blackfoots.
* Marked (?) because we find Paduca Kaskaias.
330 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
1. The Bethuck. — The particular division to which the
aborigines of Newfoundland belonged, has been a matter of
doubt ; some writers considering them to have been Es-
kimo, others to have been akin to the Micmacs, who have
now a partial footing in the island.
Keasons against either of these views are supplied by a
hitherto unpublished Bethuck vocabulary with which I
have been kindly furnished by my friend Dr. King, of the
Ethnological Society. This makes them a separate section
of the AlgonJcins,* and such I believe them to have been.
2. The Shyennes. — It has been already stated that the
present Shyenne area is isolated. This had a tendency
to mislead inquirers and to originate the notion that the
Shyennes were Sioux.
Again, — in a treaty between the United States and the
Shyennes, in 1825, the names of the chiefs who signed are
Sioux. This misled also.
Still, on the evidence of Mr. Kennet M'Kenzie, of the
St. Louis Fur Company, who informed Mr. Gallatin that
" there was not at that time any European interpreter for
the Shyenne, that the treaty was carried on through the
medium of some Sioux, and that he had reason to be-
lieve that the names subscribed to it were Sioux transla-
tions of those of the Shyenne chiefs,11 their position was
left as doubtful by that philologist.
However, a vocabulary of Lieutenant Abert has since
settled the matter, " in which no affinity whatever is dis-
covered with the Sioux. Although from its nature it
contains but a small number of primitive words, or of
those for which we have equivalents in other languages,
* A table of the chief affinities between the Bethuck and the other Algoiikin lan-
guages (or dialects) has been published by the present writer in the Proceedings
of the Philological Society for 1850.
THE ALGONKINS. 331
there are enough to establish the fact that the Shyennes
are, like the Black-feet, an Algonkin tribe. Out of forty-
seven Shyenne words for which we have equivalents in
other languages, there are thirteen which are indubitably
Algonkin, and twenty-five which have affinities more or
less remote with some of the languages of that family.
Of these last I would have rejected more than one half had
they stood alone, but they corroborate, to some extent,
the evidence afforded by the words, the etymology of
which is clear. The nine remaining words (out of the
forty-seven), which have no apparent affinity with the
Algonkin, are hill, mountain, stone, little, white, and the
numerals VI, VII, VIII, IX, on comparing the vocabu-
lary with those of other families, I could discover no other
words which had any resemblance but the following: —
little = naJcee, Shyenne, oJceye, Wyandott ; fire = sist,
Shyenne ; ojishta, ojista, Seneca, Oneida." *
Furthermore, the evidence of Lewis and Clarke,
confirmed by that of M'Kenzie and Gallatin, shows that
the separation of the Shyennes from the other Algonkins,
took place within the historical period. " They were ori-
ginally settled on a stream called Chayenne, or Cayenne,
an upper branch of the Bed River of Lake Winnepeg,
from which they were driven away by the Sioux ; an ac-
count which is confirmed by Alexander M'Kenzie. They
retreated west of the Missouri, below the river War-
reconne, where their ancient fortifications still existed in
1804. Thence they were again compelled to retreat far-
ther west, near the Black Hills, on the head branches of
the river which now bears their name."*f-
That the evidence of the Shyenne numerals, the only
* Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. ii.
t Ibid.
332 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
part of Lieut. Aberfs vocabulary then known to him,
made the Shyennes Algonkin, was also stated by the
present writer at the meeting of the British Association,
in 1847, at Oxford. — Transactions of the Sections, p. 123.
3. The Black-foots. — Until lately all that was known of
the Black- foot language was from two short vocabularies,
one of Humphreville's, and one of Mr. Catlin's.
The addition of a third in MS. has fixed the lan-
guage as Algonkin ; such being the opinion formed inde-
pendently by both Mr. Gallatin* and the present writer,
who was favoured by Dr. Pri chard with the MS. It
is further confirmed by a tabulated vocabulary of Mr.
HowseX now in the press. "\
With the exception of the Shyennes, who seem to have
moved within the historical period, the Algonkin area is
continuous ; but though continuous, it is not uninterrupted.
The important class of the Mohawk, or Iroquois, tribes,
is different from the Algonkin. It lies within the Al-
gonkin area, surrounded by Algonkins, but not itself
Algonkin.
THE IROQUOIS.
Measured by the extent of ground that it covers the
Iroquois class is of less importance than the Algonkin.
Measured by its prominence in history it is equal or greater.
The Five Nations were Iroquois. The once formidable
MohawJcs were Iroquois. Before the arrival of the Euro-
peans the Five Nations were dominant over their Algonkin
neighbours ; and after the arrival of the Europeans the
Iroquois warriors were more feared than those of the
Algonkins. At one time the head of the Algonkin con-
federacy was an Iroquois chieftain.
* Transactions of American Ethnological Society. II., cxiii.
t Transactions of Philological Society, 1849 and 1850.
THE IROQUOIS. 333
It has been stated above that the Iroquois are, at present,
encompassed (or nearly encompassed) by Algonkins ; so
as to have become isolate in respect to the other classes of
Indians, and cut off from contact with them. This, and
more than this, is the case. Portions of the Iroquois
family are cut off from each other, so that in coming to the
details we shall expect to hear of the Northern division of
the Iroquois, and of the Southern division of the Iroquois.
At present it is sufficient to state that such a division
exists, and that the localities for the Northern Iroquois are
the parts about Lake Huron ; for the Southern, North
Carolina. In the latter locality alone are they in contact
with tribes other than the Algonkin.
Area. — Discontinuous.
Divisions. — a. Northern Iroquois. 6. Southern Iroquois.
Sub-divisions. — a. Northern Iroquois. 1. The Five Nations^The Mohawks,
the Oneidas, the Onondagoes, the Senecas, and the Cayugas. 2. The Confede-
racy (?) of the Hurons (or Wyandots), the Erigas, the Andastes, and the Attion-
darons, the Tionontates, the Anies (?), &c.
6. Southern Iroquois. — The Tutelo, Nottoway, Meherrin, and Tuscaroras.
Localities. — a. For the Northern Iroquois the parts about and between Lakes
Huron, Ontario, and Erie. b. For the Southern Iroquois. — North Carolina.
Separation effected by tribes of the Algonkin division, especially the Delawares.
The Iroquois and Algonkins exhibit in the most typical
form the characteristics of the North American Indians as
exhibited in the earliest descriptions, and are the two
families upon which the current notions respecting the
physiognomy, habits, and moral and intellectual powers of
the so-called Red Race are chiefly founded.
THE SIOUX.
Area. — Central North America, between the Mississippi and the Rocky Moun-
tains, east and west. Between Lake Winebago and the Arkansas, north and
south. The valley of the Missouri. The water-system of Lake Winebago.
One division east of the Mississippi.
Divisions. — 1. Winebagoes, Hochungohrah = Trout Nation. 2. Dakotas,
Sioux, or Nadowessiou. 3. Assineboins, or Stone Indians. 4. Upsaroka, or
Crows. 5. Mandans. 6. Minetari. 7- Osage.
Sub-divisions. — a. Of the Dahcota — 1. Yanktons. 2. Yanktoanans (?) 3.
Tetons. 4. Proper Sioux.
334 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
b. Of the Osage. — 1. Konzas. 2. Missouris. 3. Ottos. 4. Omahaws. 5.
Puncas. 6. loways. 7. Quappas. 8. Osage Proper.
The Sioux is the third great division of the North Ame-
rican Indians, and it is the division which comprises the
tribes of the interior, of the Far West in opposition to
the sea-coast, of the prairie country in opposition to the
tracts that are or have been forest, and of the foot of the
Rocky Mountains. The country of the buffalo is shared
between them and the Western Algonkins.
Broadly speaking, we may say between these three
nations the basins of all the feeders of the Upper Mis-
sissippi are distributed : the exceptions being insignificant.
This they have and more ; since the Canadian population
is, in great part, Algonkin.
The Sioux tribes are essentially inland or continental.
CATAWBA.
Locality.— *The Santee, or Catawba River, in North Carolina.
WOCCOON.
Locality. — North Carolina. Extinct.
The Catawba and Woccoon languages, which are allied to each other, probably
represent those aboriginal languages of North Carolina, which were not of the
Algonkin class.
Besides these, however, there occur the following names,
concerning which we only know that they belonged to
North Carolina. The extent to which they spoke mutu-
ally unintelligible dialects is uncertain. 1 . Cheraws ; 2.
Waterees; 3. Congarees; 4.Enoes ;(?)* 5. Sewees ; 6. San-
tees ; 7. Wyniaws ; 8. Waxsaws; 9. Esaws ; 10. Toteros ;
11. Keyauwees; 12. Sissispahaws ; 13. Machapanga ; 14.
Connamox; 15. Coramines ; 16. Chowans; 17. Wyanokes ;
18. Sawara.
Add to these for South Carolina: — 1. The Saluda;
2. Stonoes; 3. Edistoes ; 4. Westoes ; 5. Yamassees.
* Marked (?) because we find Anies amongst the Iroquois (p. 333), and
Inies amongst the Caddos.
CAROLINA AND VIRGINIA INDIANS. 335
This indicates a new branch of research, viz. : the eth-
nology of the extinct tribes ; and the extent to which it
may be carried in the way of minute investigation is shown
by the length of the list of the divisions or sub-divisions of
the population of the Carolinas alone. It is nearly as long
for the original colony of Virginia, where the first settlers
mention amongst others —
1. Kecoughtans. — At the mouth of James River. A
colony of this people was transplanted by Powhattan in
1608 to the banks of the Montgomery.
2. Paspaheghes. — James River, just above the Kecough-
tans.
3. Arrohatecks. — James River, just above the Paspa-
heghes.
4. 5, 6, 7, 8. — Appamatucfcs, Quiyoughcohanocks, War-
raskoyacks, Nandsamwnds, Chesapeaks. — All on the south-
east side of James River. On York River we find the
names of Youghtamund and Mattapament ; but whether
these be the names of districts, or of tribes, is uncertain.
9. The Bocootawwonaukes. — So called by the Powhat-
tans, situated to the north-east of the Falls, and said to
smelt copper and other metals.
10, 11, 12. — Indians of the Rappahannock. — In the
high-country at its head-waters the Mannahoacks. the
Cuttatawoman (?), the Nandtaughtacund ; these last num-
bering 150 men.
13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21.— Indians of the Poto-
mack. — The Wighcocomoco with 100 fighting men ; the
Cekakawwon with 30; the Onawmament with 100; the
Satawomeck with 1 60 ; the Taxenent with 40 ; the Pota-
poco with 20 ; the Pamacoack with 60 ; the Moyoones
with 100 ; and, lastly, Nacothtank with 80.
22, 23, 24. — Indians of the Pawtuxwnt. — The Aquinta-
336 AMERICAN MONGOLID^E.
nacsuck, the Pawtuxunt, and Mattaparaent. Number of
fighting men about 200.
Besides the following are mentioned as surrounding the
Powhattan's territories —
1 . The Chawonocfcs, bounded on the north by
2. The Mangoangs.
3. The Mannohocks conterminous with the Mannoacks.
4. The Acquanachuk.
5. The Tockwoghs.
6. The Nuskarawaok.
Of all these there is the special evidence of Strachey,
from Captain Smith, that none understand each other
except by interpreters ; an observation which applies to
the Monacans and Susquehannas as well.
Besides these names we collect from the map the
additional ones of the (1) MassawomecJcs, and (2) Kus-
JcarawaoJcs.
Some of these spread northward, and represented part
of the population of the Northern States (which, however,
was chiefly Minsi), just as some of the Carolina tribes
reached into Florida. Still, the great number of sub-
divisions, for comparatively small areas, constitutes one of
the difficulties of American ethnology. For none of these
lost families do we possess vocabularies ; so that, although
from external evidence we are sometimes able to give them
an ethnological position, the evidence is not conclusive.
That conclusive evidence is necessary, and that we can by
no means at once assume any given tribe to be Algonkin,
simply because it is within the Algonkin area, is well
known to every investigator for these parts.
Again, not only have whole tribes become extinct since
the settlement of Europeans, but at the very beginning of
the American historical period, tribes were found mutually
THE CHEROKEES. 337
exterminating each other. The empire of Powhattan was
founded upon the annihilation of some tribes, and the in-
corporation of others. The Huron Iroquois were nearly
extinguished by the Five Nations. The Mandans, within
the last decennium, after being thinned and weakened
by the small-pox, were, as a separate tribe, destroyed by
the Sioux, who incorporated with themselves those who
were not killed in the attack.
The Catawbas and Waxas are said to have flattened
the head.
THE CHEROKEES.
Locality. — Valley of the Tennessee River.
Conterminous with the Southern Algonkins, the Southern Iroquois, the Cataw-
bas, and the Choctahs.
The Cherokee is one of the few so-called savage nations
which is increasing, and not ^creasing, in numbers. It
is, also, the most industrial of all the American families ;
the Cherokee landholder having, in some cases, as much
as five hundred acres under tillage, and possessing slaves as
well. Lastly, a native Cherokee has reduced the lan-
guage to writing — the alphabet (which will be noticed in
the sequel) being syllabic.
THE CHOCTAHS.
Area. — Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, parts of Louisiana, Georgia, South Caro-
lina, and Tennessee.
Bounded by the Mississippi, the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic, the Catawba,
the Cherokee, and the South Algonkin areas.
Divisions. — a. Choctahs b. Muscogulges, Muskohges, or Creeks.
Sub-divisions. — a. Of the Choctahs, the Chikkasahs. b. Of the Creeks, the
Hitchittee and Seminoles.
The Choctahs flatten the head.
The Choctah civilization is partially industrial, differ-
ing but little from that of the Cherokee.
The Choctah family has, probably, been a family of
338 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
encroaching area, the population which it displaced being
represented by —
THE UCHE.
Locality. — The Coosa River.
Synonym. — Probably the Apalaches of De Soto.
Language — as known from a single vocabulary, peculiar.
Also by —
THE COOSADA.
Conterminous with the Uche, and said to speak a peculiar language, but which
is not known from any vocabulary.
Also by —
THE ALIBAMONS.
Conterminous with the Uch6, and said to speak a peculiar language ; but
which is not known from any vocabulary.
We now see that a separate group of tribes or families,
aboriginal to Florida, but now replaced by Creeks, has
existed within a recent period.
We also see that these groups may have been as many
as three in number ; since it by no means follows that,
because the Uche, Coosadas, and Alibamons are different
from the Choctahs, they must be allied to each other.
Again, — one or more of the extinct tribes of South
Carolina may have been an element (and a fresh one too)
in the population of Florida. That such was the case
with the Yamassis is almost certain, since they were
destroyed by the Seminoles during the last century.
Hence, when we hear that the Creek confederacy was
formed upon either the extermination or incorporation of
fifteen families, we have a measure of the multiform cha-
racter of the ethnology of Florida and Alabama.
CADDOS.
Locality — Between the rivers Mississippi and Sabine.
Language. — Known by a vocabulary. Not closely connected with any other.
Most like the Cherokee.
The provisional character of all these groups has been
VALUE OF GROUPS. 339
noticed. This is so great that scarcely two inquirers would
give the same answer to the question, " What is the dif-
ference between a member of (say) the Algonkin and one
of (say) the Cherokee, Choctah, or Iroquois class ? " The
most extreme opinions are, perhaps, those of Gallatin, as
expressed in the Synopsis, and the present writer. Ac-
cording to the former, the Algonkin, Iroquois, Sioux, Ca-
tawba, Cherokee, Choctah, and Caddo, and Uche languages
differ from one another, as the English and Turkish, or
the Greek and Lapplandic, i.e. as languages reducible to
no common class, a view which makes divisions so large
as the Algonkin, and so small as the Uche, equally equi-
valent to the great class denominated Indo-European — a
doctrine by no means improbable in itself, since it differs
in degree rather than in kind, from the similar juxta-
position of large and small, simple and sub-divided classes,
which we find in Europe ; where the isolated Basque and
Albanian are, in the present state of our knowledge, co-
extensive in the way of classification with the wide and
varied Indo-European, Semitic, and Ugrian groups.
The present writer allows a value, equal to that
expressed by the term Indo-European to three groups
only, the first of which contains the Algonkin, which is
apparently more different from the others than they are
from each other ; the second, the Uche, which, although
it has several miscellaneous affinities, is not at present
subordinated to any other class ; and the third, the
remainder, i.e. the Iroquois, Sioux, Catawba, Cherokee,
Choctah, and Caddo, or (probably) the Iroquois, Sioux,
and Cherokee, as primary divisions, to the last of which
the Catawba, Choctah, and Caddo are subordinate. This is
the very utmost he would do, in the way of recognising
differences. He will, however, hereafter give reasons for
z 2
340 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
doing less. At present the notification of fresh divisions
of the population is continued.
THE NATCHEZ.
Locality. — Banks of the Mississippi, in the parts about the present city of the
same name. Extinct, or incorporated. The last remnant of the Natchez occu-
pied a small village on the River Talipoosa, in Alabama.
language. — Known through a single vocabulary. Not closely connected with
any other ; but with miscellaneous affinities.
Great prominence in Indian history has been given to
the Natchez from the destruction, at their hands, of the
first French colony planted within their territory, in 1729,
followed by an almost exterminating revenge on the part
of the French, in the following year.
And great prominence is no more than is required for
them in Indian ethnology.
They flattened the head, — There is evidence to this in
the account of Du Pratz ; and there is evidence to it in the
fact of the disinterred skulls from the Natchez area, ex-
amined by Morton, bearing marks of compression. This,
however, is what we have already seen, to the east of them,
I.e. amongst the Choctahs.
They practised human sacrifices on the death of their chief.
They not only worshipped the sun, but (like the an-
cient Romans) kept burning an eternal fire.
Their religion so far acted upon their social or political
constitution, as to develop a sort of caste-system, the prin-
cipal chief being the Great Sun, and his children, suns ;
whilst the portion of the tribe not supposed to be so
descended, were destitute of civil power.
Their nobility was transmitted through the female.
Such is a brief notice of the customs of the Natchez,
which more or less differentiate them from the neighbour-
ing tribes, with which (the Chetimachas excepted) they
are said to have had but little intercourse.
CHETIMACHAS. 341
Competent investigators consider that more than one of
these peculiarities point to a Mexican origin, a view which
is considered to be confirmed by the Natchez traditions
doing the same ; these being to the effect that their nation
migrated from Mexico at two different periods.
TAENSAS (TENSAWS?).
Locality. — Originally conterminous with the Natchez. If the same as the
Tensaws, they are, at present, on the west of the Mississippi. Special evidence
to their temples being of the same kind with those of the Natchez in A. D. 1682.
— Gallatin's Synopsis, p. 115.
PASCAGOULAS.
Locality. — Red River of Louisiana; originally on the River Pascagoula. If
the same as the Bayagoulas, there is special evidence to their worship of the sun
and fire. — Gallatin's Synopsis, p. 114.
COLAPISSAS,
Locality. — In 1721 near the present site of New Orleans. Extinct or incorporated .
BILUXI.
Present locality. — Below Natchitoches. Originally east of the Mississippi.
Probably in the same class with the two preceding.
The notion that the Taensas, Pascagoulas, Colapissas, and
Biluxi, belong to the Natchez family, is favoured by certain
facts and traversed by none. This is not the case with —
THE CHETIMACHAS.
Conterminous — with the Natchez, from whom they differed in language, and
(probably) in customs as well, but with whom they were united in the way of
political confederation. Extinct or incorporated.
Language. — Known through a single vocabulary. Not closely connected with
any other, but with miscellaneous affinities.
Of two skulls exhumed from a cemetery within the Cheti-
macha area, and examined by Morton, neither gives evi-
dence of artificial compression.
HUMAS.
Original locality. — East of the Mississippi, above New Orleans, " of whom a
few are said to remain below Manchac, and others to be found in the vicinity of
the Attacapas." — Gallatin, p. 115.
TUNICAS.
Original locality. — Opposite the mouth of the Red River.
342 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
Present locality. — Avoyelle, on the Red River.
P AC AN AS.
Present locality. — West of the Mississippi.
Original locality. — West Florida.
There is the special evidence of Dr. Sibley, the chief
authority for the Indians west of the Mississippi, that the
Humas, Tunicas, Biluxas, and Pascagoulas, each speak (or
spoke) a different language.
The tribes which now follow are considered by Dr.
Sibley to be indigenous to the country west of the Mis-
sissippi ; those last-mentioned having moved thither from
the present states of Mississippi, Alabama, and West Flo-
rida, within the memory of man, or at least within the
period of authentic history.
They chiefly lie to the east of the River Sabine ; (i.e. be-
tween that river and the Mississippi), so as to belong to the
original area of the United States, rather than to Texas, a
distinction of importance ; inasmuch as, whilst the ethno-
logy of the parts which belonged to the United States in
A.D. 1836,* is, comparatively speaking, well understood,
that of Texas is still fragmentary and imperfect.
As far, however, as the Sabine, Dr. Sibley is the chief
first-hand authority.
NATCHITOCHES.
Divisions. — 1. Natchitoches. 2. Yatassis.
Number. — In 1836, about 150, together.
Language. — Stated by Dr. Sibley to be different from any other. — Gallatin,
p. 116.
ADAHI.
Conterminous with the Natchitoches and Yatassis.
Language. — Known by a vocabulary. With no particular, but with miscel-
laneous affinities. — Gallatin's Synopsis.
Number.— In 1836, about fifty.
APELUSAS.
Number. — In 1836, about 40. Said by Dr. Sibley to speak a distinct
language.
* The date of Gallatin's Synopsis.
THE ATTACAPAS. 343
Locality. — The district so called.
ATTACAPAS.
Number. — In 1836, about 50. Said to have been cannibals and flat-heads.
Language. — Known by a vocabulary. With no special but with miscellaneous
affinities.
Divisions. — l,Attacapas; 2, Carankuas. At least this latter tribe, according
to Dr. Sibley, speaks the same language with the Attacapas. — Gallatin, 116.
Now if the Karanchuhuas of Texas be the Carankua At-
tacapas, the extension of that family is remarkable, since
the locality of the Karanchuhuas is sea-coast about Mata-
gorda Bay. Again, — the Cokes are a branch (extinct or
nearly so) of the Karanchuhuas.
Having reached the River Sabine, we may look both
west and east. Eastward the question lies as to the ex-
tent to which the present list has been exhaustive — if not
of individual tribes, at least of families and groups. Now
the Creeks and Choctahs have been tribes of an encroach-
ing area ; whilst as special fact, we find that in A.D. 1763,
the Colooses retreated before the Creeks : first to the
extremity of Florida, and afterwards to the Havannah.
Upon good grounds, then, it has been believed that the
natives of Florida, anterior to the spread of the Creeks,
were other than Creek or Choctah. Into how many divi-
sions this Floridian population fell, and amongst what
known families (if any) it was divided, is unascertained.
It might be one. It might be distributable amongst many
— Uche, Catawba, Natchez, &c. It might, too, be repre-
sented by a wholly extinct family. Probably it was Uche
on the south-west, and Catawba on the north. The
Yainassis may have been the latter, the Colooses the for-
mer. Still the question is wholly open.
Westward we come to Texas. Now the imperfect and
fragmentary character of our information makes the con-
sideration of the Texian Indians (known by little beyond
344 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
their names) most conveniently follow the enumeration of
the tribes to the north and west of them — besides which,
four unplaced families have still to be enumerated as belong-
ing to, and interrupting the great Algonkin and Sioux areas.
THE AHNENIN.
Synonym. — Arrapahoes (?) — Fall Indians, from their locality.
Locality. — The Falls of the River Saskachewan.
Language. — Pec ul iar.
ARAPAHOES.
A tribe of this name is placed in Mr. Catlings map, in
California, on one of the eastern feeders of the Colorado, in
the latitude of Santa Fe.
The Arrapahoes, again, according to Gallatin, are a
detached tribe of the Ahnenin, who have wandered as far
south as the Platte and Arkansas Rivers.
The identity, when ascertained, of name, is prima facie
of this. Still it is not much more. On the other hand
the fact is by no means improbable. A vocabulary of the
southern Arrapahoes has yet to be collected.
RICCAREES.
Locality. — The Missouri, about 150 miles below the Mandans.
The Eiccarees have been classed in the section next fol-
lowing. The scanty vocabulary, however, of the two lan-
guages, by no means justifies us in making this affinity a very
close one. On the other hand, they are kept distinct in the
present work, provisionally.
PAWNEES (PANIS).
Locality. — Valley of River Platte, extending as far west as its sources, and
as far south as the Arkansas.
Divisions. — a. The Loup Pawnees, b. The Republican Pawnees.
The Towiatch* of Texas are also called Pawnees ; pro-
bably improperly.
* See p. 349.
THE PADUCAS. 345
*****
Conterminous with the Pawnees are the Paducas. Pa-
duca is a name given to a division of the Indians, but im-
perfectly known, and concerning which the information
found in Prichard seems to be chiefly from Pike. It is
the name given, collectively, to those tribes who, on
the almost unexplored parts about the head waters of the
River Platte, succeed the Sioux on the south, and the
Pawnees on the west. That they are conterminous with
this last-named family is inferred from the name ; Paduca,
being no native designation, but the one given by the
Pawnees.
As great extension is now given to the tribes repre-
sented by those of the parts in question, the word will be
used as a general name of a class.
The most important fact, however, connected with the
Paducas, is their distribution, or the configuration of the
area which they occupy. The inland projection of the
Gulf of Mexico so narrows the southern part of North
America, that the phenomenon of a family extending, like
the Eskimo and Athabaskans, across the continent, may
now be expected.
Farthermore, a family thus spread from the Atlantic to
the Pacific, would be of greater ethnological significance
than even the similarly extended Athabaskans and Es-
kimo ; since from its central position (central in respect
to its north and south relations) it would disconnect the
northern and southern populations.
Still more remarkable would be the distribution if the
parts thus separated geographically, were also separated
by marked contrasts in the way of language, manners,
or civilization.
Now all this is the case with the great Paduca area.
346 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
Spreading from the Pacific to the Atlantic, it has to
the north developments like those of the Oregon and the
valley of the Mississippi : to the south those of Mexico,
Guatimala, and Yucatan.
The physical geography of the northern part of the
Paduca area is as remarkable as is its ethnology ; since it is
a table-land from which four great rivers rise, to run their
course in four opposite directions. There, within a small
distance of each other, are the sources of the Saptin, a
feeder of the Columbia running in a nortk-wesiemly direc-
tion, of the Colorado running south-west, of the Yellow-
Stone branch of the Missouri, and of the Rio del Norte
of Texas. This latter running in an elevated narrow val-
ley, from about 41° N. L., through the whole of New
Mexico, is preeminently the river of the Cumanch tribes ;
tribes of which the exact east and west direction is not
ascertained, but of which the north and south area is one
of the longest in America.
PADUCAS.
Direction of the Paduza area. — Oblique ; i.e. from N.W. to S.E., or vice versa.
Longitudinal Extension. — From the Pacific to the Gulf of Mexico ; from the
water-system of the River Columbia to that of the River Sabine ; from north of
45° N.L. to south of 25° S.L.
Conterminous — a. On the north with the Tototune(P), Shasti (?), Palaiks(P),
Lutuami, Molele (?) Wailatpu, Sahaptins, Sioux (chiefly Upsarokas), Pawnees,
Sioux (chiefly Osages), Towiach, and the wow- Paduca Indians of Texas, b. On
the south, with the wow-Paduca Indians of California and Mexico.
Divisions. — Value undetermined. — Wihinast, Bonaks, Diggers, Utahs, Sam-
piches, Shoshonis, Kiaways, Kaskaias(P), Keneways(P), Bald-heads (?), Cu-
manches, Navahoes, Apaches, Carisos.
Wihinast. — Called by Mr. Hales, Western Shoshonis,
and unequivocally members of that division. Locality
45° N.L. 117° W.L., on the southern bank of the Snake
or Lewis River, and conterminous with the Wailatpu.
Of the Northern Paducas, these are the nearest to the
Pacific, from which they are separated by the Lutuami,
THE PADUCAS. 347
Umkwa and Saintskla. The evidence that the Wihinast
are Shoshoni is derived from a vocabulary of their lan-
guage.— Philology of the U.8.E.E.
Bonaks. — Classed with the Shoshonis on the strength
of external evidence only. — Between them and the Wihi-
nast.
Diggers. — Classed with the Shoshonis on the strength
of external evidence only. — They are a poverty-stricken
tribe of the Californian Desert, who live by digging for
roots.
Utahs. — Classed with the Shoshonis, &c. — Occupants
of the parts about the Utah Lake.
Sampiches. — Classed with, &c. — South of the Utahs.
Manner of life like that of the Diggers.
Shoshonis. — These are the Paducas which are at once
the most northern and the most eastern of the group.
They also are remarkable for occupying both sides of the
Rocky Mountains, and are bounded on the north by
the Sahaptin, and on the east by the Sioux, west by
the Bonaks and Wihinast, and south by the Proper
Paducas of Pike.
Kiaways, KasJcaias, Keneways, Bald-heads. — Of these
I know little, except that they seem to fill up the area
between the Shoshonis and the —
Cumanches. — The chief Indians of Texas. — It is the
ethnological position of the Cumanches that determines
the extent of the Paduca group. That the Kiaways,
&c., are Cumanche is believed on external evidence, and
on the a priori probability. That the Cumanche are Sho-
shoni is believed upon external evidence by those Ameri-
cans who have had means of forming an opinion, and also
upon the evidence of a short MS. vocabulary of the Cu-
manche, with which the present writer was favoured by
348 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
Mr. Bollaert, compared with an equally short one of the
Shoshoni in Gallatin's Synopsis. This was in 1844;'""
since which time, although the data for the Shoshoni
have greatly increased, those of the Cumanche are as
imperfect as ever. Still the author has but little doubt
as to the truth of the opinion of the Shoshoni affinity
with the Cumanche, or (changing the expression) of the
common Paduca character of the two.
Navahos. — Considered Paduca, because they are stated
to be akin to the —
Apaches — who are stated to be akin to the Cumanche,
and who are widely spread both westward and southward
of the area of the Proper Cumanche, between the River
Puercos and the Rio Del Norte. In Chihuahua, and
Cohuahuila (especially in the Bolson de Mapimi), we find
tribes under the names of Apaches Farones, and Apaches
Mescaleros, extending — in their incursions at least — as
far as the interior of Durango. Of the Apaches, the —
Carisos — are said to be a branch.
Such are the members of the great Paduca family, to
which it is safest, in the present imperfect state of our
knowledge, to give an ethnological position, subject to
correction from future investigations ; which, necessary
in most departments of the science, are pre-eminently
necessary here.
How far the prominence thus given to a section of the
American population, which is generally disposed of in a
short notice, is necessary, is to be found in its geographical
relations to Mexico and California on the one hand, and
to the Indians of Oregon and the Mississippi on the other.
The Cumanches are the chief Indians of Texas ; hence,
* Transactions of the Ethnological Society, vol. i. Transactions of British
Association for the advancement of Science.
TEXIAN TRIBES. 349
from the north and west of that state they form an
ethnological boundary. The names (all that the author
can give) of the Texian tribes not already included in the
several extensions of the Cumanche, Pawnee, Sioux, Che-
rokee, Choctah, Natchez, and other smaller families, are —
COSHATTAS.
Knowing of no vocabulary of the Coshatta language, I
am unable to say what it is or is not. The tribe is a
member of the Creek confederacy. It is not indigenous to
its present locality, having immigrated from the east of
the Mississippi. In a notice of the earlier Creek con-
federation we find mention of Cussetahs, and in connection
with the Alibamons, Coosadas on the River Coosa. The
former of these facts suggests a Creek, the latter a Uche,
affinity. Still, it gives nothing more than a suggestion.
TOWIACHS.
Divisions. — l.Towiach ; 2. Tawakenoes ; 3. Towecas (?) ; 4. Wacos.
Localities. — 1. Of theTowiach, — two villages, Nitehata and Towahach, on the
Red River ; 2. Of the Tawakenoes, — 200 miles of Nacogdoches, south of the Red
River. Said by Dr. Sibley to speak the same language as the Towiachs ; 3, 4. The
Towecas and Wacos are in villages north of Red River.
The Towiachs of Texas are sometimes called Pawnees,*
probably improperly. Perhaps they form a branch of the
Paducas rather than a separate substantive family ; since
there is the express statement of Kennedy, that the Texian
Towacanis, or Tahuacanos, are Cumanche ; and that the
Wacos on the upper River Brazos, are the same.
LIPANS (SIPANS).
Locality. — Between the River Aransas and River Grande.
Numbers. — In ] 845 about 500.
ALICHE.
Synonym. — Eyeish .
Locality. — Near Nacogdoches. Name only known. Enumerated in the
Mithridates.
* See p. 344.
350 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
ACCOCESAWS.
Locality. — West of the Red River, 200 miles from Nacogdoches. Name only
known. Enumerated in the Mithridates.
NAVAOSOS (?).
Of the Navaosos, I only know that they are said to be
a branch of the Lipans. If so, and if also they are
Navahos, we are enabled to fix the Lipans as Paduca.
They are extinct in Texas.
MATES.
Locality. — St. Bernard's Bay. Name only known. Enumerated in the
Mithridates.
CANCES.
Locality. — Ditto, ditto.
TONCAHUAS.
The Toncahuas, or Tonkeways, are mentioned by Ken-
nedy as being, like the Lipans, the hereditary enemies of
the Cumanches, and as retreating before them from the
hunting grounds of the upper country.
On the other hand, I find that Mr. Bollaert makes them
an offset of the Cumanches. In 1845 they numbered
about 300 souls.
TUHUKTUKIS (TAHOOKATUKES).
The Tuhuktukis are members of the Cherokee confede-
racy ; within, but not considered indigenous to, Texas.
UNATAQUAS.
Synonym. — Anadarcos.
The Unataquas are members of the Cherokee confede-
racy ; within, but not indigenous to, Texas.
MASCOVIE.
1AWANIS (lonis).
Each of these divisions (of which the value is unascer-
tained) are members of the Cherokee confederacy.
TEXIAN TRIBES. 351
WICO (?)*
Locality.— Head waters of the upper Red River, conterminous with the
Kioways and Cumanch.
AVOYELLES.
WASHITAS.
Original Locality. — West of the Mississippi. Extinct or incorporated.
KETCHIES.
XARAMENES.
CAICACHES.
Extinct.
BIDIAS.
Locality. — Middle part of Trinity River.
Number. — In 1845, ten families only.
A MS. of Mr. BollaerVs, and the work of Kennedy,
on Texas, have been the chief authorities for the pre-
vious. The notes of interrogation show the extent to
which it may be amended. Data for doing this are
probably more abundant in America than here.
For the whole area between the three oceans — (Arctic,
Pacific, and Atlantic) — and the break formed by the Pa-
ducas, the chief groups have now been enumerated — per-
haps exhaustively, or nearly so.
Not, however, finally. Although the details of even
the wider groups have been so numerous as to make
the present notice of them classificational rather than de-
scriptive, there are still a certain series of facts which,
from having a significance beyond that of their mere
occurrence, require notice.
Whatever has an important bearing upon the following
two great problems comes under this category —
1. The unity or non-unity of the American populations,
one amongst another.
* In Mr. Bollaert's list there only appears the name of Wacoes, who are said to
be a branch of the Cumanches.
352 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
2. The unity or non-unity of the American populations
as compared with those of the Old World.
1. The unity or non-unity of the American popula-
tions one amongst another — a short history of the different
opinions upon this point will give two things at once — a,
the history itself, and. J, the chief facts by which changes
in it were brought about.
The broad differences between the American Indians,
as a body, when compared with even the most anomalous
of the tribes of the Old World, were such as would natu-
rally engender on the part of the earliest investigators —
those of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries — an opi-
nion in favour of a general fundamental unity amongst
the several sections of them. This was the effect of the
natural tendency of the human mind to connect with
each other those things which disagree with certain others
rather than the result of any definite series of comparisons.
The Brazilian and the Mohawk equally agreed in dis-
agreeing with the Laplander, or Negro ; and this common
difference was enough to bring them within the same
class.
The observed facts which first had a tendency to dis-
turb this notion, were, most probably, those connected
with the languages. These really differ from each other
to a very remarkable extent — an extent which to any par-
tial investigator seems unparalleled ; but an extent which
the general philologist finds to be no greater than that
which occurs in Caucasus, in the Indo-Chinese frontier,
and in many parts of Africa.
The phsenomena, however, which the multiplicity of
mutually unintelligible tongues spoken within limited areas
exhibited, were first made known in the case of the lan-
guages of America ; and, as new facts, they were not likely
DIFFERENCE IN AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 353
to be undervalued. On the contrary, another natural ten-
dency of the human mind, viz., a readiness to exaggerate
difference in cases where similarity had been expected,
was allowed full play ; and not only were the really
remarkable phenomena of philological diversity overstated,
but the inferences from them rather exceeded than fell
short of their legitimate compass. A measure of the
extent to which this was carried may be collected from
the following extract from Prichard, — " We owe the
earliest information respecting the languages of America
to the missionaries sent from time to time by the kings
of Spain at the instigation of the Pope, with the view of
converting the native inhabitants to the Christian reli-
gion. Many of these persons devoted immense labour to
the acquisition of the idioms of various tribes, with the
intention of qualifying themselves for the effectual perform-
ance of their duties. They represent the number of dis-
tinct languages spoken in the New World as very great.
Abbe Gilii, who wrote a history of the Orinoco and
collected specimens of the languages spoken in different
districts with which he was acquainted, says that if
a catalogue were formed of all the idioms of the con-
tinent, they would be found to be ' non molte moltissime,1
but ' infinite, innumerabili.' Abbe Clavigero declares
that he had cognisance of thirty-five different idioms
spoken by races within the jurisdiction of Mexico. Father
Kircher, a celebrated philologer of his time, after consult-
ing the Jesuits assembled in Rome on the occasion of a
general congregation of the order in 1676, informs us that
those missionaries who had been in the New World
supposed the number of languages, of which they had
some notices in South America, to be five hundred. But
the Abbe Royo, who had made diligent inquiries about
354 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
the language of Peru, where he had dwelt, asserts that
the whole people of America spoke not less than two
thousand languages. The learned Francisco Lopez, a na-
tive of South America, who had extensive knowledge of
that country as well as of the northern continent, a great
part of which was traversed by the Jesuits, thought it no
rash assertion to say that the idioms, ' notabilmente di-
versi,' of the whole country were not less than fifteen
hundred."
It is difficult to say what would have been the natural
growth, in the way of opinion from these strong (and not
much overstated) phsenomena, as to the apparently radi-
cal differences between the languages in question if they
had come down to the present generation of scholars in
an unmodified and unqualified form. This, however, was
not the case. A most important disturbing element was
soon indicated, which I follow Prichard in ascribing to
Vater.
It was this — viz : that different as may be the languages
of America from each other, the discrepancy extends to
words or roots only, the general internal or grammatical
structure being the same for all.
Of course this grammatical structure must, in and of it-
self, be stamped with some very remarkable characteristics.
It must differ from those of the whole world. Its verbs
must be different from other verbs, its substantives other
than the substantives of Europe, its adjectives unlike the
adjectives of Asia. It must be this, or something like
this — otherwise its identity of character goes for nothing ;
inasmuch as a common grammatical structure in respect to
common grammatical elements is nothing more than what
occurs all the world over.
At present it is enough to say, that such either was or
DIFFERENCE IN AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 355
appeared to be the case. " In Greenland," * writes Vater,
" as well as in Peru, on the Hudson river, in Massachusets
as well as in Mexico, and as far as the banks of the Orinoco,
languages are spoken, displaying forms more artfully dis-
tinguished and more numerous than almost any other idioms
in the world possess." " When we consider these artfully
and laboriously contrived languages, which, though existing
at points separated from each other by so many hundreds of
miles, have assumed a character not less remarkably similar
among themselves than different from the principles of all
other languages, it is certainly the most natural conclu-
sion that these common methods of construction have
their origin from a single point ; that there has been one
general source from which the culture of languages in
America has been diffused, and which has been the com-
mon centre of its diversified idioms."
" In America," says Humboldt, * " from the country
of the Eskimo to the banks of the Oronoco, and again,
from these torrid banks to the frozen climate of the
Straits of Magellan, mother-tongues, entirely different
with regard to their roots, have, if we may use the ex-
pression, the same physiognomy. Striking analogies of
grammatical construction are acknowledged, not only in
the more perfect languages, as that of the Incas, the Ay-
mara, the Guarani, the Mexican, and the Cora, but also
in languages extremely rude. Idioms, the roots of which
do not resemble each other more than the roots of the
Sclavonian and Biscayan, have those resemblances of in-
ternal mechanism which are found in the Sanscrit, the
Persian, the Greek, and the German languages. Almost
everywhere in the New World we recognise a multipli-
city of forms and tenses in the verb, an industrious artifice
* Extracted from Prichard, vol. v. p. 304.
A A 2
356 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
to indicate beforehand, either by inflection of the personal
pronouns which form the terminations of the verb, or by
an intercalated suffix, the nature and the relation of its ob-
ject and its subject, and to distinguish whether the object
be animate or inanimate, of the masculine or the feminine
gender, simple or complex in number. It is on account
of this general analogy of structure ; it is because Ameri-
can languages, which have no words in common, the Mexi-
can for instance, and the Quichua, resemble each other by
their organisation, and form complete contrasts with the
languages of Latin Europe, that the Indians of the
missions familiarise themselves more easily with other
American idioms than with the language of the mistress
country."
Lastly, definitude was given to these and similar some-
what too general expressions as to the difference in gram-
matical structure on the part of the American languages
from those of the Old World, and their likeness to each
other by the analytical investigations of Du Ponceau,*
whose term poly synthetic, as descriptive of the character-
istic and peculiar complicated grammar of the American
idioms from Greenland to Cape Horn, has been generally
received.
We now see in a general way (and this is as much
as in a work like the present can be shown), the meaning
of a statement made in a former page,f viz. : that " where
the American languages differ from each other they differ
in a manner to which Asia supplies no parallel," whilst
when they " agree with each they agree in a way to
which Asia supplies no parallel" — i. e., whilst they agree
* Transactions of the Literary and Historical Department of the American
Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, vol. i.
t Pp.287.
DIFFERENCE IN AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 357
grammatically they differ glossarially ; so exhibiting what
may be called a philological paradox.
At present we are neither doubting the reality nor
measuring the amount of this paradox ; we are only ask-
ing in which of two ways it has been interpreted. What
has been the effect of the antagonism between the phi-
lologico-grammatical and the philologico-glossarial test ?
Which has told most ? the difference or the likeness ?
Has the first determined investigators to separate what
the latter unites, or has the latter united what the former
separates ?
The answer to this is — that the likeness in the gram-
mars has been generally considered to over-ride the dif-
ference in the vocabularies ; so that the American languages
are considered to supply an argument in favour of the
unity of the American population stronger than the one
which they suggest against it.
The evidence of language, then, is in favour of the unity
of all the American populations — the Eskimo not excepted.
The evidence, however, of language, forms but a frac-
tion of the argument ; indeed, it is only one part of the
great division which contains the moral elements of eth-
nological difference or likeness in opposition to the physical.
The complementary question as to the unity or non-unity
of the general social or mental development of the abori-
ginal American still stands over.
What are the facts which chiefly influence opinion here?
In which direction is their influence I
The facts are of two kinds —
1. Those which disconnect the Eskimo —
2. Those which disconnect the Mexicans and Peruvi-
ans from the other Americans — the former on the strength
of an inferior, the latter on the score of a superior civili-
358 AMERICAN MOXGOLID^E.
zational development. What is their value ? This will
be best ascertained when all the sections of the American
population involved in the question have been noticed.
At present the Eskimo only have been dealt with ; the
Mexicans and Peruvians still remaining to be described.
Enough, however, has been said to show that the ques-
tion has taken a complication ; since the evidence of the
wow-philological moral and mental phenomena is against
the unity of the American population — the Mexicans and
Peruvians on one side, and the Eskimo on the other being
isolated.
The evidence, however, of the moral and mental phoeno-
mena (philological and wow-philological combined), is but one
division of the argument. The complementary question
as to the unity or non-unity of the physical conformation
of the aboriginal American still stands over. What are
the facts which chiefly influence opinion here ?
Mutatis mutandis, the statements which have just
been made may very nearly be made here. The test of
physical conformation is considered to exclude the Eskimo;
and the test of physical conformation is considered to
exclude, if not the Mexican, at least the Peruvian.
******
Notwithstanding the convenience of deferring the more
general discussion of the question until the Peruvians — in-
deed, until the whole of the American tribes have been
considered — -the present is, nevertheless, a convenient time
for taking in, by means of a retrospect, some of the more
material facts connected with the social and civilizational
capacity of the Indians which have last been described —
i.e. the wow-Eskimo tribes of the parts between the Rocky
Mountains and the Paducas. This is to be measured by
what is called the Indian biography of their men of mark
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURAL ARCHAEOLOGY. 359
like Thyandeeeya (Brandt), Tecumseh, or Powhattan, by
the history of the Indian wars and confederations, and,
better still, by an exponent which, because it has a spe-
cial application upon the problems last indicated, will find
a place amongst our present investigations — their archi-
tectural archseology.
The Trustees of the Smithsonian Contributions to Know-
ledge have broken ground with the publication of a careful,
elaborate, and critical description of the ancient monuments
of the Mississippi Valley, the result of original surveys and
explorations, by Mr. Squier and Dr. Davis ; and it is only
the contemporary publication of the Ethnology and Phi-
lology of the United States Exploring Expedition, that
makes this the second of the great contributions to ethno-
logical science, which have been supplied by the same
country within the same year.
And first, as to the area over which these remains are
spread. — West of the Rocky Mountains,* the most that
has hitherto been found is a few mounds, tumuli, or bar-
rows. They will be called mounds. North, too, of the
Great Lakes, the remains are but few, and imperfectly
described. On Lake Pepin, on Lake Travers (in 46° N.L.),
we find notices of them ; so we do for the Missouri, as
much as 1000 miles above its junction with the Mississippi.
Eastward, they decrease as we approach the Atlantic ; i.e.
on the Atlantic aspects of Pennsylvania, New York, and
* " The only reference we have to the mounds of Oregon is contained in a
paragraph in the Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, vol.
iv.p. 313:— '-We soon reached the Bute Prairies, which are extensive, and
covered with tumuli, or small mounds, at regular distances. As far as I can
learn, there is no tradition among the natives concerning them : they are conical
mounds, thirty feet in diameter, about six or seven feet above the level, and
many thousands in numltcr. Being anxious to ascertain if they contained any
relics, I subsequently visited these prairies, and opened three of the mounds, but
found nothing in them but a pavement of round stones."
360
AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
Virginia, they become scarcer. They become scarce, too,
oil the other side of the River Sabine ; not that they are
wanting in Texas, but that they either fall off in number
or change in character as we approach Mexico.
The great centre of their development is the vast valley
of the Mississippi, and amongst the valleys of its feeders
— that of the Ohio preeminently. Here the accumulation
is at its maximum. In Ross country alone, 100 enclosures
and 500 mounds have been noticed ; whilst the whole
amount for the state of Ohio has been reckoned at 1 0,000
of the former, and 1,000 or 1,500 of the latter.
This indicates their locality and distribution. It has
also indicated their nature and character. Oftener earth-
works than buildings of stone, they are generally (but
not exclusively) either raised mounds or embankments
forming enclosures, — mounds in some cases 70 feet in
height, and 1000 in circumference at the base, and embank-
ments (with ditches corresponding) enclosing spaces of 300
acres. Such are some of the greatest measurements.
AMERICAN ARCHITECTURAL ARCHEOLOGY. 361
In form both the mound and embankment are very
varied. The enclosure may be a square, a circle, a paral-
lelogram, an ellipse, a polygon, or a wholly irregular
outline, following the inequalities of the soil or the configu-
ration of the country in which it occurs. The ditch may
be either exterior or interior to it ; the entrance simple or
complex. Sometimes the square and circle are combined ;
so that a round inclosure leads into a quadrangle, or vice
versa. Sometimes a quadrangle is enclosed with a square.
The mounds are sometimes simple cones ; sometimes (an
important difference) truncated pyramids ; often simple
slopes ; often terraced. More remarkable, however, than
any others, is " a succession of remains, entirely singular
in their forms, and presenting but slight analogy to any
others of which we have an account, in any portion of the
globe. The larger proportion of these are structures
of earth, bearing the forms of beasts, birds, reptiles, and
even of men ; they are frequently of gigantic dimensions,
constituting huge lasso-relievos upon the face of the
country. They are very numerous, and in most cases
occur in long and apparently dependent ranges. In
connection with them are found many conical mounds
and occasional short lines of embankment, in rare in-
stances forming enclosures." '
* Smithsonian Contributions, p. 2.
362
AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
The reader anticipates the object for which these works
were undertaken — the purposes of war and the purposes of
religion. This is the most general way ofstating.it ; those
for the latter purposes falling in the divisions of sepulchral
and sacrificial.
Besides the usual human remains which are found in
the sepulchral mounds, works in stone, earthenware, and
metal are frequent ; relics which, taken along1 with the
vast and numerous works which contain them, give us the
elements of the ante-historical civilization of the northern
section of the North American Indians.
The prevalence of works of a certain type varies with
the area. The animal bas-reliefs are chiefly characteristic
of Wisconsin, the truncated pyramids of the southern
States, the simple mound and enclosure of Ohio, and the
midland parts.
It should now be added, that where a square is
attempted, it is truly rectangular, and that the circles are
generally perfect ; also that, in several cases, either the
sides or the entrances accurately coincide with the east,
west, north, and south points of the compass.
Other customs, such as the Indian council of war, the
Indian calumet of peace, the stoic fortitude of the Indian
AMERICAN CHARACTERISTICS. 363
warrior, the patient bearing of the Indian squaw, their
scalpings during war, their probationary tortures during
peace, preeminently interesting objects of description, have
a subordinate value in ethnology. Value, however, they
have. The list of them is a long one, and out of it may
be selected numerous characteristics of a twofold im-
port.
1. American, or general characteristics, viz. : those
which (without being universal) are general in the new
world, whilst (without being absolutely non-existent)
they are rare in the old.
2. Sectional characteristics, or those which distinguish
one American tribe from another.
Of the first series, there are two divisions, the positive
and the negative. In respect to the positively character-
istic practices of America, the use of the scalping-knife
is, perhaps, the most typical. Horrible modes of mutila-
tion are common in Asia and Africa (in Africa most especi-
ally) ; but the exact method in question I have not found
except in America. Next to this, the habit of artificially
flattening the head deserves notice. It is not, however,
wholly unknown in the old world ; since in Arakan we
find traces of it.
The negative characteristics are, perhaps, more impor-
tant than the positive ones — preeminent amongst these
being the utter absence (with the exception of a partial
approach to it in the care bestowed by the Peruvians upon
the llama and vicugna) of the true pastoral state through-
out the whole length and breadth of America. Agricul-
ture there is, and hunting there is, — the former developing
an approach to an industrial development, and the latter
determining a semi-nomadic form of life — but the absence
of a true pastoral state wherein horses are used for riding,
364 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
oxen for draught, and cows, ewes, or mares, for milking,
is a remarkable negative characteristic which distinguishes
the aboriginal American from the Arctic Sea to Cape
Horn.
That the appreciation of differentia of this kind is wholly
incapable of being arrived at a priori, but that it must be
the result of a special induction by which we historically
determine how one (or more) of certain undoubtedly
allied divisions of the human species may want character-
istics which occur in the others (and vice versa) is a truth
which requires a fuller recognition than it has found ;
since it is far easier for a writer to show in what customs
two great sections of a population differ from one another,
than to ascertain what that discrepancy imports. Whilst
one, therefore, makes it a difference in kind, another con-
siders it as one in degree only. The present writer, who
has bestowed some pains on the special question of valua-
tion or appreciation, generally speaking puts them low.
As the criticism respecting the general characteristics,
has its bearing upon the relations of the American abori-
gines to those of the world at large, so that of the sec-
tional ones determines our views as to their unity or
non-unity among themselves. It is the same in both
cases. It is an easy matter to say that the Athabaskans
(for instance) burn their dead to ashes, whilst the Peru-
vians desiccate them into mummies ; that the Nehannis
treat their women with respect, whilst servitude, on the
part of the female, is the rule elsewhere ; or that (enter-
prise and industry being exceptional phenomena in the
western hemisphere), the Waraws are navigators, and the
Haidah islanders tradesmen ; and easier still is it to discover
that in populations which live on fishing, we miss certain
elements of the social state of the hunter or agriculturist.
AMERICAN CHARACTERISTICS. 365
The real difficulty is to take the exact measure of their
value. Failing the data for doing this, the parallel state-
ment of the points of agreement becomes a duty on the
part of the ethnologist.
Now, in this respect, the phenomenon which has been
noticed in Australia, re-appears in America, viz. : a habit
or custom, which shall not be found in more than one or
two tribes in the neighbourhood of each other, shall appear,
as if wholly independent of mutual imitation, at some
other (perhaps some distant) part of the island. Such,
in Australia, was the case of similar family names ; and
such in America is the remarkable distribution of the
habits of flattening the head, and burying on elevated
platforms ; to say nothing of the two parallel forms of semi-
civilization in Mexico and Peru, so concordant on the
whole, yet differing in so many details, and, evidently,
separate and independent developments rather than the
results of an extension of either one or the other as the
original.
The same reasons which prevent us, in the present state
of our knowledge, from drawing any inferences into the
higher problems of ethnology from those manners and cus-
toms of the American Indians, which in the mere way of
simple description give so much interest to the writings
of the adventurous traveller, save us the necessity of ex-
hibiting them in detail. No such economy, however, of
time and paper is allowed in respect to a question which
has already been more than once alluded to, viz. : the
peculiarities of the American languages ; peculiarities
which are as remarkable in respect to the points wherein
they agree, as they are in respect to the points wherein
they differ — peculiarities, however, which, remarkable as
they are, may easily be overrated.
366 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
No preliminary is more necessary for this question than
the distinction between a, the American languages as
considered in respect to their roots or words, and i, the
American languages as considered in respect to their
grammatical structure. The clear perception of this is
required on the part of the reader. On the other hand,
the writer must remember that he is composing a work
not on philology in general, but only upon such points
of that science as illustrate ethnography. Hence the
peculiarities of the American languages will not be con-
sidered in full ; but all that will be done with them will
consist in the selection of those phenomena which explain
what has already been called the philological paradox of
the American grammars being alike, whilst the American
vocabularies differ.
1. And first in respect to the facts which account for
the difference between the vocabularies. Here arise
two questions — the determination of the extent to which
such a difference really takes place, and the reasons
for its reaching that extent whatever it is ascertained to
be.
What follows, is a table representing the degree in
which languages lying within so small a geographical
area as the Uche, Natchez, and Adahi, may differ in
their vocabularies.
ENGLISH. UCHE. NATCHEZ. ADAHI.
Man cohwita tomkuhpena haasing.
Woman .... wauhnehung .... tahmahl quaechuke.
Father chitung abishnisha kewanick.
Mother .... kitchunghaing .... kwalneshoo amanie.
Son tesunung (my) . . akwalnesuta tallehennie.
Daughter .... teyunung (my) . . . mahnoonoo .... quolasinic.
Head ptseotan tomne apoo .... tochake.
Hair ptsasong » etene calatuck.
DIFFERENCE IN AMERICAN VOCABULARIES. 367
ENGLISH. UCHB. NATCHEZ. ADAHI.
Ear cohchipah ipok calat.
Eye cohchee oktool analca.
Nose cohtemee shamats weecoocat.
Mouth teaishhee heche wacatcholak.
Tongue cootincah itsuk tenanat.
Tooth tekeing int awat (pi.)
Hand keanthah ispeshe secut
Feet tetethah hatpesh6 (sing.) • . nocat (sing.)
Blood wace itsh pchack.
Sky houpoung nasookta ganick.
Sun ptso wah (fire) naleen.
Moon shafah kwasip nachaoat.
Star yung tookul otat.
Day uckkah wit nestach.
Night pahto toowa arestenet.
Fire yachtah wah nang.
Water tsach koon holcut.
Rain chaah nasnayobik ganic.
Snow stahae kowa towat.
Earth ptsah wihih caput.
River tauh wol gawichat.
Tree yah tshoo tanaek.
Meat colahntha wintse hosing.
Bear ptsaka tso kohp solang.
Bird psenna shankolt washang.
Fish potshoo henn aesut.
White quecah hahap testaga
Black ishpe tsokokop hatoua.
Red tshulhuh pahkop pcchasat.
He coheetha akoonikia (this here)nassicon.
One sah witahu nancas.
Two nowah ahwetie nass.
Three nokah nayetie colle.
Four taltlah ganooetie tacache.
Five chwanhah shpedee seppacan.
Six chtoo lahono pacanancus.
Seven latchoo ukwoh pacaness.
Eight peefah upkutepish pacalcon.
Nine 'tah'thkah wedipkatepish .... sickinish.
Ten 'tthklahpee okwah neusne.
Furthermore, had the two other conterminous languages
of the Attacapas and the Chetimachas been added, the
difference between the Jive would have been just the same
368 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
as that between the three, i. e., they would have all
differed from each other, as much as the Natchez and
Uche, the Uche and Adahi, the Adahi and Natchez
differ.
This is a fair measure of the glossarial separation be-
tween contiguous languages as determined by what may
be called the simple comparison (inspection or collation) of
vocabularies ; and it is by no means strange that, such
being the case, writers should have regarded it with some-
thing approaching to surprise.
I am not aware that much has been done to bring
down this feeling to a reasonable limit; a result which
might easily have been brought about by one or both of
the two following processes.
a. The value of the mere simple comparison of voca-
bularies may be tested by seeing what would be the
result of placing side by side two languages known to
be undoubtedly, but also known to be not very closely,
allied. Such, for instance, might be the German and
Greek, the Latin and Russian, the English and Lithuanic,
all of which are Indo-European, and all of which, when
placed in simple juxta-position, by no means show them-
selves in any very palpable manner as such. This may
be seen from the following table, which is far from being
the first which the present writer has compiled ; and that
with the special view of ascertaining by induction (and
not a priori) the value of comparisons of the kind in
question.
ENGLISH. LATIN. CAYUSE. WILLAMET.
Man homo yuant atshanggo.
Woman .... mulier pintkhlkaiu .... pummaike.
Father pater pfntet sima.
Mother mater penin sinni.
Son filius wai tawakhai.
COMPARISON OF AMERICAN VOCABULARIES, 369
ENGLISH. LATIN. CAYU8E. WILLAMET.
Daughter .... filia wai tshitapinna.
Head caput talsh tamutkhl
Hair crinis tkhlokomot .... amutkhl.
Ear auris taksh pokta.
Eye oculus hakamush kwalakkh.
Nose nasus pitkhloken unan.
Mouth os sumkhaksh mandi.
Tongue lingua push mamtshutkhl.
Tooth dens tenif puti.
Hand manus epip tlakwa.
Fingers .... digiti epip alakwa.
Feet. .' pedes tish puiif.
Blood sanguis tiweush m6enu.
House domus nisht hammeih ( — fire.)
Axe securis yengthokinsh .... khueshtan.
Knife culter shekt hekemistah.
Shoes calcei taitkhlo uluinof.
Sky ccelum adjalawaia amiank.
Sun sol huewish ampiun.
Moon luna katkhltop utap.
Star Stella tkhlitkhlish .... atuininank.
Day dies eweiu umpiutn.
Night nox ftalp atitshikim.
Fire ignis tetsh hammeih.
Water aqua iskkainish mampuka.
Rain pluvia tishtkitkhlmiting ukwi'i.
Snow nix poi nukpeik.
Earth terra lingsh hunkhalop.
River rivus lushmi mantsal.
Stone lapis apit andi.
Tree arbor lauik huntawatkhl.
Meat caro pithuli umh6k.
Dog canis ndapang mantal.
Beaver castor pieka akaipi.
Bear ursa limeaksh alotufan.
Bird avis tianiyiwa pokalfuna.
Great magnus yaumua pul.
Cold frigidus shunga pangkafiti.
White albus tkhlaktkhlako . . komm6u.
Black •. niger shkupshktipu .... maieum.
Red ruber lakaitlakaitu .... tshal.
I ego ining tshii.
Thou tw niki maha.
He ille nip kak.
One unus na waan.
Two duo leplin k6en.
B B
370 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
ENGLISH. LATIN. CAYUSE. WILLAMET.
Three ires matnin upshin.
Four quatuor piping taope.
Five quinque tawit huwan.
Six sex • noin:'i taf.
Seven septem noilip pshinimua.
Eight octo noimat keemua.
Nine novem tanauiaishimshin wanwaha.
Ten decem ningitelp tinifia.
Again — the process may be modified by taking two
languages known to be closely allied, and asking how far
a simple comparison of their vocabularies exhibits that
alliance on the surface, e.g. : —
ENGLISH. BEAVER INDIAN. CHIPPEWYAN.
One it la day ittla he.
Two onk shay day nank hay.
Three ta day ta he.
Four dini day dunk he.
Five tlat zoon e de ay sa soot la he.
Six int zud ha 1'goot ha h6.
Seven ta e wayt zay tlnz ud dunk he.
Eight etzud een tay 1'goot dung he.
Nine kala gay ne ad ay itla ud ha.
Ten kay nay day hona.
A man taz eu dinnay you.
A woman iay quay tzay quay.
A girl id az oo ed dinna gay.
A boy taz yuz 6 dinnay yoo azay
Interpreter nao day ay dinnay tee ghaltay.
Trader meeoo tay ma kad ray
Moose- deer tlay tchin tay tunnehee hee.
Rein-deer may tzee ed hun.
Beaver tza tza.
Dog tlee tlee.
Rabbit kagh kagh.
Bear zus zus.
Wolf tshee o nay noo nee yay.
Fox e yay thay nag hee dthay.
I hunt na o zed naz uz ay.
Thou huntest nodzed nan ul zay.
He hunts nazin zed nal zay.
We hunt naze zedeo na il zay.
COMPARISON OF AMERICAN VOCABULARIES. 371
ENGLISH. BEAVER INDIAN. CHIPPEWYAN.
Ye hunt nazin zedeo nal zin al day.
They hunt owadi6 tzed na hal zay.
I kill uz £ay gha zil tir.
Thou killest uz eay ghan zil hil tir.
He kills ud zeay gha tla in il tir.
We kill uz ugho-ghay uzin tla in il dir.
Ye kill uz ugho ghay uzin zee ool dir.
They kill utza ghay agho tla in il tay.
I laugh utzay rad lotsh naz-lo.
Thou laughest utlint lotsh na-id-lo.
He laughs utroz lotsh nad-lo.
We laugh utlo wod lotshay tlo a-ee-el-tee.
Ye laugh tlodzud udzee tlo gha ee-ol-tee.
They laugh tlodzud udzee tlo-gha-ee-el-tee.
I trade mata oz lay naz nee.
Thou tradest mata an eelay na el nee.
He trades kita od eenla na el nee.
We trade mata ad oz id la na-da-ell nee.
Ye trade mata a la ozayo na ool nee.
They trade ma ta a leeay la eghon a el nee.
Now there is no doubt here as to the difference ap-
pearing to be considerable. Yet the two languages — or,
rather, dialects — are mutually intelligible.
b. The method of indirect comparison — although by
some considered illegitimate — supplies us with another
means of checking the tendency towards over- valuing glos-
sarial differences as tested by simple collation ; since, a
language of which the isolation goes beyond a certain
point must not only be unlike any single given language,
but unlike other languages altogether. Now, taking the
Adahi as an illustration, the following table shows its
miscellaneous or general affinities.
English, man English, woman
Adahi, haasing Adahi, quaechuke
Otto, wahsheegae. Muskoge, hoktie
Onondago, etschinak Choctah, Jiottokohyo
Abenaki, seenaribe=:vir Osage, vako
„ arenanbe=homo Sack and Fox, kwyokih
B B 2
372
AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
Ilinois, ickoe
Nanticoke, acquahique
Delaware, okJiqueh
Algonkin, &c., squaw
Taculli, chaca
English, girl
Adahi, quoatwistuck
Chikkasaw, take
Choctah, villa tak
Caddo, nuttaitesseh
Oneida, caidazai
Micmac, epidek
English, child
Adahi, tallahening
„ tallahache=boy
Omahaw, sltinga shinga
Otto, cheechinga
Quappa, sliety'inka
English, father
Adahi, kewanick
Chetimacha, kineghie
Chikkasaw, unky
Choctah, aunkke
English, mother
Adahi, amanie
Caddo, ehneh
Sioux, enah, eehong
Tuscarora, ena
Wyandot, aneheh
Kenay, anna
Eskimo, amama.
English, husband
Adahi, hasekino
Chetimacha, hichehase
Winebago, eekunah
Taculli, eki
Tchuktchi, uika
English, wife
Adahi, quochekinok
„ quaechuke — woman
Tuscarora, ekening=do.
Cherokee, ageyung — woman.
Chetimacha, hicJiekithia
„ hichehase— man
English, son
Adahi, tallehennie
Caddo, hininshatrseh
Omahaw, eeingyai
Minetare, eejinggai
Winebago, eeneek
Oneida, yung
English, brother
Adahi, gasing
Salish, asintzah
Ottawa, sayin=elder
Ojibbeway, osy aiema
English, head
Adahi, tochake
Caddo, dachunkea—face
„ dokundsa
English, hair
Adahi, calatuck
Chippewyan, thiegah
Kenay, szugo
Miami, keelingeh-=face
English, face
Adahi, annack
Chetimacha, kaneketa
Attacapa, iune
Eskimo, keniak
English, ear
Adahi, calat
Cherokee , gule
Passamaquoddy, chalksee
English, nose
Adahi, wecoocat
Montaug, cochoy
Micmac, uchichun
English, beard
Adahi, tosocat
Attacapa, tae$h=hair
COMPARISON OF AMERICAN VOCABULARIES.
373
Nachez, ptsasong^=hair.
Chetimacha, chattie
English, arm
Adahi, ivalcat
Taculli, ola
Chippewyan, law
English, nails
Catawba, ecksapeeah = hand
Natchez, ispeshe—hand
English, belly
Adahi, noeyack
Winebago, neehahJtah
Eskimo, neiyuk
English, leg
Adahi, ahasuck=.leg
Chetimacha, sauknuthe=feet
„ saukatie— toes
„ saw=leg
Osage, sagaugh
Yancton, /too
Otto, hoo
Pawnee, ashoo=.foot
Sioux, see, seehah=do.
Nottoway, saseeke=do.
Dacota, see.liukusa—tws
Nottoway, seeke=do.
English, mouth
Adahi, wacatcholak
Chetimacha, cha
Attacapa, katt
Caddo, dunehwatclia
Natchez, heche
Mohawk, wachsacarlunt
Seneca, wachsagaint
Sack and Fox, wektoneh
Mohican, otoun
English, tongue
Adahi, tenanat
Chetimacha, httene
Uch6, cootincah
Choctah, issoonlush
Knistenaux, otayenee
Ojibbeway, otainuni
Ottawa, tenanian
English, hand
Adahi, secut
„ sicksapasca=.nails
Choctah, shukba'=.his arm
Chikkasaw, shukbah=do.
Muskoge, sakpa^do.
Kenay, skona
Attacapa, nishagg~ fingers
Omahaw, shagai
Osage, sJiagah
Mohawk, shake
Yancton, shakai=znails
Otto, shagai = do.
English, blood
Adahi, pchack
Caddo, baaho
Passamaquoddy, pocagun
Abenaki, bagakkaan
Mohican, pocaghkan
Nanticoke, puckcuckque
Miami, nihpeekanueh
English, red
Adahi, pechasat
Natchez, pahkop
English, feet
Adahi, nocat
Micmac, ukkuat
Miami, kutuh
Taculli, oca
Chippewyan, cuh
Ilinois, nickahta=leff
Delaware, vrikhaat=do.
Massachusetts, muhkout'=.do.
Ojibbeway, okat—do.
English, bone
Adahi, wahanit
Otto, u-ahoo
Yancton, hoo
Dacota, hoohoo
Ojibbeway, okun
Miami, kaanih
374
AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
Eskimo, heownik
„ oaeeyak
English, house
Adahi, coochut
Nachez, hahit
Muskoge, chookgaw
Choctah, chukka
Catawba, sook
Taculli, yock
English, bread
Adahi, okhapin
Chetimacha, heichepat chepu
English, sky
Adahi, ganick
Seneca, kiunyage
English, summer
Adahi, weetsuck
Uch6, waitee
English, fire
Adahi, nang
Caddo, nako
Eskimo, ignuck
English, mountain
Adahi, tolola
Taculli, chett
English, stone, rock
Adahi, ekseka
Caddo, seeeeko
Natchez, ohk
English, maize
Adahi, ocasuck
Natchez, hokko
English, day
Adahi, nestach
Muskoge, nittah
Chikkasaw, nittuck
Choctah, nittok
English, autumn
Adahi, hustalneetsuck
Choctah, hushtolape
Chikkasaw, hustiUomona
English, bird
Adahi, loashang
Choctah, liushe
Sack and Fox, wisJikwnon
Shawnoe, wiskiluthi
English, goose
Adahi, nickkuicka
Chetimacha, napiche
Ilinois, nicak
Ojibbeway, nickak
Delaware, kaak
Shawnoe, neeake
English, duck
Adahi, ahuck
Eskimo, ewuck
English, fish
Adahi, aesut
Cherokee, atsatih
English, tree
Adahi, tanaeic
Dacota, tschang
Ilinois, toauane
Miami, tatianeh=wood
English, grass
Adahi, hasack
Chikkasaw, hasook
Choctah, hushehuck
Uch£, yahsuh — leaf
Chikkasaw, hishe—do.
English, deer
Adahi, wakhine
Uche, u-ayung
English, squirrel
Adahi, enack
Sack and Fox, aneekuah
Nanticoke, nou-ckkcy
COMPARISON OF AMERICAN VOCABULARIES. 375
Abenaki, anikesses
Knistenaux, annickochas
Cherokee, naski
English, old
Adahi, hansnaic
Caddo, hunaisteteh
Nottoway, onahahe
Catawba, eekway
English, good
Adahi, awiste
Dacota, haywashta
Yancton, washtai
,1
Adahi, nassicon
English, kill
Adahi, yoeick
Caddo, yokay
English, two
Adahi, nass
Algonkin, &c., nis, ness, nees
Now the Adahi is so far from being a singular instance
of an American language having miscellaneous affinities that
there are not half-a- dozen vocabularies for either North or
South America for which I have not similar lists.*
Such is the imperfect sketch of my reasons for believing
that any statement which places the glossarial differences
between the American languages, as ascertained by the
simple inspection of their vocabularies, so high as to in-
volve the idea of a unique and unparalleled philological
phenomenon is an owr-statement.
In thus limiting the extent of a remarkable characteristic
I am not denying its existence. That the difference, even
when cut down to its proper dimensions, is still more con-
siderable than the usual investigations of philologists pre-
pare them to expect, is shown by the necessity (which
I freely admit) of resorting in America to the indirect
method of comparison, where in many (perhaps most)
other parts of the world, simple collation would suffice.
Why is this? The following facts help us to an
answer — -fragmentary and partial though it be.
The paucity of general terms. — What shall we say to
a language where a term sufficiently general to denote an
oak-tree is exceptional; a language where the white oak
* Some of these have been published, e.g. in the Philological Transactions.
376 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
has one specific name, the black-oak another, the red-oak
a third, and so ? Yet such is the ease with the Choctah ; *
where, a fortiori, the still more general name for tree is
more exceptional still. This is the case with a noun.
Verbs, however, are equally specialized. Where we
in England talk of fishing, the Eskimo has a distinct name
for every mode of fishing ; and this is only part and parcel
of the system which " designates with a peculiar name
animals of the same species according to their age, sex, or
form."
This is a character, which, though illustrated from two
languages, is common to all the American ones.
Now the more specific the name the less extensive its
application, and the less extensive its application the
smaller the probability of its appearing in more languages
than one. No one would expect the word brother to occur
in the Gaelic (brathair), and in the Latin (frater), if
Gaels, Englishmen, and Romans, without any name for
brother in general, had merely known an elder brother by
one separate single name, and a younger one by another,
as is really the fact in America. What we should look
for in such a case would be the equivalents to words like
cadet, and these might differ in languages otherwise allied.
Names, then, for common objects are often of so specific
a kind in the American languages, that they differ in cases
where, if more general, they would agree.
The numerals. — Another class of words, which in many
languages agree, differs in the American, viz., that of the
numerals. In the Indo-European tongues these agree even
where other words differ^ The converse, however, takes
place with the tongues in question. Languages, alike in
* Gallatin, in American Ethnological Transactions, cxxxi.
t As may be seen in p. 370.
PAUCITY OF GENERAL TERMS. 377
other points, shall count differently. Can this be ex-
plained ? I submit the following doctrine, based upon
the difference between absolute numerals like two and
three (words which mean two units, and three units ex-
clusively and irrespectively), and concrete numerals like
brace and leash.
Between these two classes of words there is the fol-
lowing difference. Absolute numerals give no choice,
concrete numerals do. Out of two tribes, wherein the
intelligence of each is so little capable of generalization
as not to have evolved abstract and absolute numerals
like those of the Indo-European nations (one, two, &c.),
the only way of counting is by the adoption of some
material object in which the number of its parts is a
striking characteristic ; in which case there is so much
room for arbitrary selection that allied languages may take
up different words. It is not to be supposed that unless
the English, Greeks, Gaels, Slavonians, and the members
of the Indo-European stock in general, had broken off
from the common stem at a period subsequent to the evo-
lution of absolute numerals that their names for the first
ten units would be so like as they are. On the contrary,
there would most certainly have been a difference ; two
being expressed in one quarter by a word like brace, in
another by such a term as couple, in a third by pair, and
so on. Now this latitude exists and bears fruit with the
American languages. One takes the name for (say) two
from one natural dualism, another from another — one
calls it by the name for a pair of hands, another by that
of a pair of feet, a third by that of a pair of shoes, &c.
Names, then, for numerals in the American languages
differ as much as the natural objects from which they may
be derived, the separation from the parent-stock of the
378 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
tongues in which they occur having taken place before
the evolution of fixed absolute and abstract terms.
The verb-substantive. — In the Indo-European languages
the verb-substantive agrees even where other words differ ;
the English be is the Latin fu- ; the German ist is the
Greek lar-t ; the English am is the Latin sum, and the
Greek elfjbi. This induces us, in languages where there is
no such agreement, to argue in favour of a fundamental
dissimilarity. And naturally. Tongues as far apart as the
English and Sanskrit agree, where tongues as close to each
other as the Adahi and Chetimacha differ. But to expect
likeness on this point simply because we find it in Europe
and Asia, is to make bricks without straw. In most of the
American languages, an idea so abstract as that conveyed
by the verb- substantive has yet to be evolved ; in other
words, there is no verb-substantive at all in the generality
of them : according to some writers, it is wanting in all.
Such are some of the facts and suggestions which help
to account for the glossarial difference between the Ame-
rican languages, a phenomenon which, even though occa-
sionally overstated, is still a reality to a certain degree.
I am fully aware that, at the first view, they seem to
prove too much; i.e. they seem, by accounting for the
differences, to admit them ; just as, in common life, the
person who excuses himself for an imputed action, admits
the truth of the imputation. How far this is the true view
will be seen after the notice of some of the antagonistic
phenomena of agreement in the way of grammatical
structure.
Negative points of agreement. — Case-endings, properly so
called, are either rare or wanting throughout the American
tongues. Possession is expressed by the pronouns; just
as if we said, father his, or pater suus instead of patri-s,
1A»
PECULIAKITIES OF AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 379
father-s. In like manner the pronoun expresses the
objective relation; I strike him horse =ferio equu-rn.
Signs of number, properly so called, are wanting. The
general American equivalent for such a form as the -s in
patre-s, or father-s, is a word signifying number, as father
many = father-s.
Signs of gender, properly so called, are wanting. This,
however, is no more than what occurs in the English
adjective.
Signs of the degrees of comparison are wanting. This, how-
ever, is no more than what occurs in the French adjective.
Notwithstanding, however, this list of negations — a
list capable of being considerably increased — the American
grammar is complex ; a fact which brings us to the positive
characteristics of the language in question. These, also,
are very general.
a. The distinction between animate and inanimate objects.
— The plural of the name of such an object as a star is
of one form ; the plural of the name of such an object as
a sheep, another. In some languages this distinction ex-
tends farther, and applies to the rational and irrational
divisions of the animate class.
b. The incorporation of the possessive pronoun. — Certain
words like hand, father, son, express, all the world over,
objects which are rarely mentioned except in relation to
some other object to which they belong — a hand, for in-
stance, is mine, thine, his, and so is a father, a son, a wife,
Sec. In other words there is almost always a pronoun*
attached to them. Now in the American languages this
is almost always incorporated with the substantive ; so
that an American can only talk of my father, thy father,
* We have just seen that this, in the American languages, is the case even in
words like John's hand, which would, there, be John he hand.
380 AMERICAN MOXGOLIDJE.
&c., being incapable of using the substantive in a sense
sufficiently abstract to dispense with the pronoun.
c. The incorporation of the objective pronoun with the
verb. The Latin word a-ma-nt contains, beside the part
which represents the action, a second element representing
the agent. An American verb would, besides this, con-
tain an element representing the object, so that what the
Latin expressed by amant ittas (two words) would be
denoted in most Indian tongues by a single form. Now
when we remember that the name of the object is thus
reduced to an inflection, and also that the pronoun ex-
pressive of it, varies with the sex, we see how American
tongues may be both copious in the way of grammar and
complex as well. And such, notwithstanding many facts
to the contrary, is really the case.
Inclusive and exclusive plurals. — A word like we in
English, is a much more abstract word than it appears to
be at first sight. What should we say if instead thereof
we only said / + thou, or / + they ? What if both these
expressions were used ? In such a case we should have
two plurals one exclusive of the person spoken to (/ + they},
and one inclusive of him (/ + thou). Now the phenomenon
of the exclusive and inclusive plural is very general through-
out the aboriginal languages of America.
Such are the chief points wherein languages differ in
respect to their lexicons, and agree in respect to their
grammars.*
*****
The Californias, New Mexico, and the provinces of So-
nora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Cohuahuila, Durango, Zacatecas,
and the northern part of the Anahuac, will now conduct
us to the centre of the Aztek civilization — or semi-civiliza-
* For further criticism see the remarks on the Otomi language.
NEW CALIFORNIA. 381
tion of the city of Montezuma. And here the enumera-
tion of the divisions and subdivisions of the population
must be almost exclusively geographical, i.e. we must
take the tribes as they come in their order on the map, and
not in the order wherein they are related to each other.
The reason of this lies in the unsatisfactory character of our
knowledge. Preeminently scanty, it is unsystematic as
well. What follows then is but little better than an
undigested list of references, more than one of which may
refer to the same tribes under different names, and more
than one of which may be incorrect. Still it is a contribu-
tion towards a monograph, the necessity of which gives it
place in a systematic work, which it would not have other-
wise ; and lest the value of such a monograph, if properly
drawn up, be undervalued, the reader is reminded that most
of the elements of our criticism in regard to the civiliza-
tional phaenomena presented by Mexico, Guatimala and
Yucatan, depend upon the facts known concerning the
Californias and the parts to the south of them.
New California. — For the parts between the mouths of
the rivers Clamet (or Lutuami) and Sacramiento. — Physi-
cal geography gives us for these parts three divisions : #,
the coast and western boundary of the valley of the Sacra-
miento ; J, the valley of the Sacramiento itself; c, the
eastern watershed of the Sacramiento.
a. For the coast we have a notice as to the miserable
condition of the natives about Trinity Bay in N. L. 41°
with the special statement that they file their teeth. Pro-
bably they constitute an extension of the Southern Toto-
tunes. On the other hand, the later writers have re-
marked, that the boundary between the Oregon and
California is not only a political but an ethnological one
as well ; in other words, that the physical appearance of
382 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
the Indians changes as soon as the frontier is passed.
Except so far as there is a difference in the physical geo-
graphy, this coincidence is unlikely.
b. In respect, however, to the valley of the Sacramiento,
such a difference exists. The Desert of California, like
that of the Sahara, has its oases, and these are the valleys
of its rivers. However narrow these may be, the conditions
of physical and social development which they afford, are
always improvements upon those of the desert table-land.
Here our only data are Mr. Dana's, which consist of —
1. A vocabulary of the occupants of the river about
250 miles from its mouth, and 60 miles south of the
Shasti, whom they resemble, being a mirthful race, with
no arms but bows and arrows, and with little inter-
course with foreigners.
2, 3, 4. Four vocabularies from the occupants of the
river, about 100 miles to its mouth, i.e. of the Puzhune,
Sekumne, and Tsamak dialects. Allied to these and like
them occupants of the western bank, are the Yasumnes,
the Nemshaw, the Kisky, the Yalesumnes, the Yuk, and
the Yukal.
5. A Talatui vocabulary. Captain Suter, a settler in
these parts, informed Mr. Dana, that the Talatui and the
Indians just named, resembled each other in every thing
but language, and that the Talatui was spoken by the
following bands : — The Ochekamnes, the Serouslmmwes,
the Chnpumnes, the Omutchumnes, the Secumnes (?), the
Walagumnes, the Cosumnes, the Sololumnes, the Tu-
realemnes, the Saywaymenes, the Nevichwww0s, the Match-
emnes, the Sagayayumnes, the M.uihe\emnes, and the
Lopoialemnes. Probably the Chochouyem tribe of the
Mithridates belongs to this quarter. Probably, also, the
Youkiousme of Mofras ( ? )
NEW CALIFORNIA. 383
6. A notice of Major Sand's, in Gallatin,* carries us
over the eastern watershed of the Sacramiento to one of
the streams of the great Californian Desert, which have no
outlet to the ocean, called Salmon-trout River. Here the
chief sustenance is of a lower order than that of tribes on
the Sacramiento. With the latter it is nearly exclusively
acorns made into a not unpalatable bread ; with the
former grass-hoppers or locusts dried and pounded, mixed
with the meal of grass-seeds, and baked.
Parts about San Francisco. — a. A. Youkiousme ( ? ) Pater-
noster of Mofras, seems to belong to the same division
with —
b. A vocabulary of the language of San Rafael in the
United States1 Exploring Expedition. If so, and if also
the position of the Youkiousme just suggested be correct,
further information will bring the languages enumerated
by Dana, to the neighbourhood of San Francisco ; for
which parts we also find in Mofras —
c. A Tularena Paternoster.
d. A notice of a MS. Tularena grammar by Arroyo.
e. f. The Santa Inez, and Santa Barbara, Paternosters
of Mofras.
g. Ti. The Severnow and Bodega vocabularies (appa-
rently representing mutually unintelligible languages) of
Baer's Beitrage.
Lastly, in the Mithridates -f- we find enumerated, as in-
habitants of these parts, the Matalan, the Salsen, and
the Quirotes, followed by the statement of Lasuen, that
between San Francisco and San Diego seventeen lan-
guages are spoken, which cannot be considered as dialects
of a few mother-tongues. On the other hand, however,
* Transactions of American Ethnological Society, vol. ii. pp. xxxviii. and li.
t Vol. iii. p. 3.
384 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
in respect to the three sections just mentioned, Humboldt
expressly states that, whilst they are separated as peoples
(Volkerschaften), their speech is from a single source.
Parts about Monterey. — The vocabularies of the Mithri-
dates, taken from the Voyage of the Sutil and Mexicana
of—
a. The Eslen or Ecclemachs.
1. The Eumsen — East of the Eslen. To which add a
notice of —
c. The Achastlier probably a section of the Rumsen,
or vice versa.
Parts about N.L. 35°. — Vocabularies of the American
Exploring Expedition for —
a. La Soledad.
b. San Miguel, about fifty miles south-east of La
Soledad.
c. The San Antonio of Dr. Coulter. Published in the
paper of Dr. Scouler's, already quoted.
d. The San Luis Obispo. — Ditto.
e. The Santa Clara of the Mithridates.
For the parts between N.L. 35°, and N.L. 32^-°.— Here,
as hitherto, our knowledge is limited to the tribes on the
coast.
a. The Santa Barbara, of Dr. Coulter. — Journal of
Geographical Society.
b. c. The San Juan Capistrano, the same as the Netela
of the United States' Exploring Expedition.
d. The San Gabriel of Dr. Coulter, the same as the
Kij of the United States' Exploring Expedition.
e. The San Diego of Dr. Coulter.
The SS. Gabriel and Juan Capistrano, are more closely
allied than any other two of Dr. Coulter's. Besides which
there seems to be between them, a regular letter-change
NEW CALIFORNIA. 385
of the / and r. In San Juan Capistrano, whilst but one
word ends in r, maharr =five, several end in I ; as skul =
star, ul = arrow, nol = chief, amaigomal = boy, shungal =
woman ; whereas, the San Gabriel has no terminations in I,
but many in r, as touarr = arrow, tomearr = chief, toJcor =
woman, &c.
ENGLISH. SAN JUAN CAP1STBA NO. SAN GABRIEL.
Moon mioil muarr.
Water pal paara.
Earth ekhel ungkhur.
Salt engel ungurr.
Hot khalek oro (?).
South of San Diego, the land narrows itself into the
peninsula of Old California. Here we have —
1. The Cochimi. — If the area of the Cochimi dialects
(of which there are four, said to differ from each other
as much as the Spanish and the French) extend as far
north as N.L. 33°, the San Diego vocabulary most probably
represents one of them.
2. The Waikuru — called also the Monk* or Moqui (I),
and of which the following dialects are enumerated —
a. The Cora (?) *. Extinct, or nearly so.
b. The Uchitee, or Utshi. Extinct.
c. The Aripe. Probably extinct.
d. The Layamon of Loretto, known to us by a voca-
bulary.
3. The Pericu. — Probably extinct. Spoken at the
southern extremity of the island from N.L. 24°, to Cape
St. Lucas.
4 (?). The Ikas. — By the unknown author of the " Na-
chrichten von der Amerikanischen Halbinsel Kalifornien
(Mannheim, 1773), who was a Jesuit missionary in the
Peninsula, the Ikas, a fourth family, is enumerated amongst
the Old Californians.
* The reasons for the italics and the(:j) may be seen in p. 397.
C C
386 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
5 (?). The Picos, too, or Ficos, of Bagert, may pos-
sibly represent a separate family. More probably, how-
ever, they are Ifcas, or sections of some better known di-
vision of the Old Californian population.
If we now take a review of what has been investigated,
it is only a coast and a peninsula. What, however, is
the state of the interior of that great tract which, po-
litically, lies between Mexico, the United States, and the
Pacific, and of which we have the ethnological limits in
the areas of the Tototune, the Shasti, the Palaiks, the
Paducas, and lastly the Indians of Sonora — for thus far
south must we go before we get clear of the terra incognita
of California ?
I am better prepared with suggestions as to the method
of investigating these parts than with facts concerning
them.
1. In the way of physical geography it is convenient to
draw a distinction. The great interior basin (or table-
land) of California is one division ; the great triangular
watershed between the rivers Gila and Colorado another.
2. In the way of new facts we must expect the phseno-
mena of stone architecture, as manifested in the ruins of
ancient buildings.
3. In the way of inference we must guard against over-
valuing the import of them. They are not upon light
grounds to be considered as the measures of a civilization
so different from that of the tribes hitherto enumerated,
as to suggest the machinery of either unnecessary migra-
tions, or unascertained degradations or annihilations of race.
The difference between the great interior basin of Ca-
lifornia, and the valleys of the rivers Gila and Colorado,
with their feeders, is that of a desei-t and the oases that
lie within it. The tribes that inhabit the former are
NEW CALIFORNIA. 387
under some of the most unfavourable conditions for suste-
nance in the world. Some of them, such as those to the
east and north, are known to be the more miserable mem-
bers of the Paduca class. Those of the west are probably
extensions of the imperfectly known tribes of the coast,
and their analogues in the way of physical influences
are to be sought for in Australia rather than in
America.
It is not surprising that the water-system of two con-
siderable rivers should furnish strong elements of contrast
to those which exist in what is either a table-land or a basin,
according as the attention of the investigators is struck
by its elevation above the sea, or by its depressions form-
ing salt-lakes — Dead Seas in the way of ethnology. Nor
yet is it surprising that such contrasts should have full
justice done them in description. Ruins in stone, too, in
districts where the most we expect is the embankment
or tumulus, strike even the cautious observer with sur-
prise ; and fragments of art, however imperfect, create
wonder when they represent an industry different from
what is found amongst the existing populations of their
locality. Whatever may be the exaggeration as to parti-
cular descriptions, however, the ethnological deduction is
well summed up in the following extract. In describing
the tribes of the Gila, the Colorado, and of New
Mexico, Gallatin writes, " At the time of the conquest of
Mexico, by Cortes, there was northwardly, at the distance
of 800 or 1,000 miles, a collection of Indian tribes, in a
state of civilization, intermediary between that of the
Mexicans and the social state of any of the other
aborigines."*
What was the civilization ? what the tribes ? It is
* Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. ii. p. 83.
388
AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
best to express both these facts in as general a way as
possible. The Casas Grandes represent the first. The
Pimos Indians the second.
The Casa Grande, or Great House. — On the south bank
of the Gila, in the midst of a large and beautiful plain,
are the ruins of what was called by its discoverers, Fathers
Garcias and Font,* the Casa Grande, a building 445 feet
in length, and 270 feet in breadth, with three stories and
a terrace ; the walls being built of clay, and a wall in-
terrupted with towers investing the principal edifice.
Fig. 13.
Later descriptions of Casas Grandes, by eye-witnesses,
are those of Lieutenant Emory and Captain Johnston.
That of the latter, of one on the Eiver Gila, is as fol-
lows : —
" Still passing plains which had once been occupied,-f- we
saw to our left the ' Casa de Montezuma.' I rode to it,
* Priclmrd, vol. v. p. 423.
t New Mexico and California. By E. G. Sqiiier, M.A.
CASAS ORANDES.
389
and found the remains of the walls of four buildings, and
the piles of earth showing where many others had been.
One of the buildings was still quite complete, as a ruin ;
the others had all crumbled, but a few pieces of broken
wall remaining. The large casa was fifty feet by forty,
and had been four stories high ; but the floors and roof
had long since been burnt out. The charred ends of the
cedar joists were still in the wall. I examined them and
found they had not been cut with a steel instrument.
The joists were round sticks about two feet in diameter.
There were four entrances — north, south, east, and west,
— the doors about four feet by two ; the rooms as below,
and had the same arrangement in each story. There was
no sign of a fire-place in the building. The lower story
was filled with rubbish, and above it was the open sky.
The walls were four feet thick at the bottom, and had a
curved inclination inwards to the top. The house was
built of a sort of white earth and pebbles, probably con-
taining lime, which abounded on the ground adjacent. The
walls had been smoothed outside, and plastered inside ;
and the surface still remained firm, although it was evi-
dent it had been exposed to great heat from the fire.
Some of the rooms did not open to all the rest, but had
a hole a foot in diameter to look through ; in other places
were smaller holes. About two hundred yards from this
building was a mound, in a circle one hundred yards
around the mound. The centre was a hollow, twenty-
five yards in diameter, with two vamps or slopes going
down to its bottom. It was probably a well, now
partly filled up. A similar one was seen near Mount
Dallas.
" A few yards further, in the same direction, north-
ward, was a terrace one hundred yards by seventy, about
390 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
five feet high. Upon this was a pyramid about eight feet
high, twenty-five yards square at the top. From this,
sitting on my horse, I could overlook the vast plain lying
north-east and west, on the left bank of the Gila. The
ground in view was about fifteen miles — all of which, it
would seem, had been irrigated by the waters of the Gila.
I picked up a broken crystal of quartz in one of these
piles. Leaving the casa I turned towards the Pimos, and
travelling at random over the plain (now covered with
mezquite), the piles of earth and pottery showed for miles
in every direction. I also found the remains of a zequia
(a canal for irrigation) which followed the range of houses
for miles. It had been very large."
The Pimos. — Without at present fixing their locality,
it is sufficient for the sake of showing the character of
their civilization, to make the following extracts, directly
from Mr. Squier's paper on New Mexico and California,
but indirectly, or in the way of first-hand evidence, from
Lieutenant Emory: —
" At the settlement of the Pimos, we were at once im-
pressed with the beauty and order of the arrangements
for irrigating and draining the land. Corn, wheat, and
cotton are the crops of this peaceful and intelligent race
of people. At the time of our visit, all the crops had
been gathered in, and the stubble showed that they had
been luxuriant. The cotton had been picked and stacked
for drying in the sheds. The fields are subdivided by
ridges of earth into rectangles of about 200 feet by
100, for the convenience of irrigation. The fences are
of sticks wattled with willow and mezquite, and in this
particular give an example of economy in agriculture
worthy to be followed by the Mexicans, who never use
fences at all.
THE PIMOS. 391
" The dress of the Pimos consists of a cotton serape, of
native manufacture, and a breech cloth. Their hair is
worn long and clubbed up behind. They have but few
cattle, and these are used in tillage. They possess a few
horses and mules, which are prized very highly. They
were found very ready to barter, which they did with
entire good faith. Capt. Johnson relates that when his
party first came to the village they asked for bread, offer-
ing to pay for the same. The bread was furnished by
the Pimos, but they would receive no return, saying,
" Bread is to eat, not to sell ; take what you want.'
" ' Their houses,' says Lieut. Emory, ' were dome-shaped
structures of wicker-work, about six feet high, and from
twenty to sixty feet in diameter, thatched with straw or
corn-stalks. In front is usually a large arbour, on top of
which is piled the cotton in the pod for drying. In the
houses were stored water-melons, pumpkins, beans, corn,
and wheat, the three articles last named usually in large
baskets ; sometimes these baskets were covered with earth
and placed on the tops of the domes. A few chickens
and dogs were seen, but no other domestic animals except
horses, mules, and oxen. Their implements of husbandry
were the axe (of steel, and obtained through the Mexi-
cans), wooden hoes, shovels, and harrows. The soil is
so easily pulverized as to make the plough unnecessary/
" Among their manufactures is a substance which they
call pinole. It is the heart of Indian corn, baked,
ground up, and mixed with sugar. When dissolved in
water it is very nutritious, and affords a delicious beve-
rage. Their molasses, put up in large jars, hermetically
sealed, is expressed from the fruit of the pitahaya.
" In manufacturing cotton they display much skill, al-
though their looms are of the simplest kind. ' A woman
392 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
was seated on the ground under one of the cotton sheds.
Her left leg was turned under, and the sole of her foot
upwards. Between her large toe and the next was a
spindle, about eighteen inches long, with a single fly of
four or six inches. Ever and anon, she gave it a twist
in a dexterous manner, and at its end was drawn a coarse
cotton thread. This was their spinning machine. Led
on by this primitive display, I asked for their loom,
pointing first to the thread, and then to the blanket gir-
ded about the woman's loins. A fellow stretched in the
dust, sunning himself, rose up leisurely, and untied a
bundle which I had supposed to be a bow and arrows.
This little package, with four stakes in the ground, was
the loom. He stretched his cloth and commenced the
process of weaving.1
" They had salt among them, which they obtained from
the plains. Wherever there are ' bottoms' which have
no drainage, the salt effloresces, and is skimmed from
the surface of the earth. It was brought to us both in
the crystallized form, and in the form when first collected,
mixed with earth.
" The plain upon which the Pimos village stands, ex-
tends fifteen or twenty miles in every direction, and is
very rich and fertile. The bed of the Gila, opposite the
village, is said to be dry, the whole water being drawn
off by the zequias of the Pimos for irrigating their lands ;
but their ditches are larger than necessary for the pur-
pose, and the water which is not used returns to the
river, with little apparent diminution in its volume.
" It is scarcely to be doubted, that the Pimos are the
Indians described by Father Garcias and Pedro Font, as
living on the south bank of the Gila, in the vicinity of
the Casas Grandes. They lived in two villages, called Utu-
THE PIMOS. 393
icut and Sutaquisau, and are described by these explorers
to have been peaceable and industrious cultivators of the
soil. When Father Font tried to persuade them of the
advantages which would result from the establishment of
Christian missions, where an Indian alcalde would govern
with strict justice, a chief answered that this was not
necessary for them. ' For,' said he, ' we do not steal, we
rarely quarrel ; why should we want an alcalde 2 " *
This is enough for a characteristic ; to which it should
be added that the area of the Casas Grandes, and that
of the agricultural (or semi-agricultural) industry of the
Pimos and other tribes coincide.
So little, however, are these parts known, that our evi-
dence comes almost exclusively from two quarters — the
early Spanish explorers of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, and the very recent American surveyors, the
circumnavigators (to use an expression of Gallatin's) of the
Californian Desert of the last decennium.
Some of the most western of the tribes that have any
(though not all) of the elements which make the Pimos
the representatives of a provisional ethnological division,
are : —
1. The Yumas. — These are placed near the junction of
the rivers Gila and Colorado, and although at enmity
with, are stated to speak the same language as, the —
2. Coco -marie opas. — Except that the Coco-maricopas
are the taller, that their noses are more aquiline, that
their intelligence is, perhaps, superior, and that their lan-
guage is different, they agree in all respects with —
3. The Pimos. — Both the Pirnos^ and the Coco-mari-
copas are on the south bank of the River Gila, bounded
* American Review, for November, 1848.
t See p. 390.
394 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
on the south by Apaches. The former are considered as
aboriginal to their present locality. Not so, however, the
Coco-maricopas, whose immigrations are said to be recent,
and whose language is akin to the Californian of San
Diego.
COCO-MARICOPAS. SAN DIEGO.
Horse quactish
Man apache epatch.
Woman seniact seen.
Child comerse jacuel.
Corn tarichte
Water ha-ache kha.
Fire house
Foot ametche
Hand issalis eshall.
Eyes adoche
One sandek silia.
Two • haveka khahuac.
'/'//;•(•(• hamoka khamoc.
Four champapa tchapap.
Five sarap khetlacai.
Six mohok khentchapai.
Seven pakek
Eight sapok tchapap-tchapap.
Nine humcamoke sinhtchahoi.
Ten shahoke namat.
4. The Mogul. — The peculiarities of the Moqui have
had full prominence given to them ; being, though not the
best authenticated, some of the first described. No living
writer seems to have seen them ; whilst the evidence of
Mr. Gregg, and Lieutenant Emory, which in both cases
is especially stated to be founded on the communications
of others, simply places them in the same category with
the tribes which have preceded them. By more sanguine
writers, however, they have had attributed to them white
skins, long beards, towns containing from 2000 to SOOO
* From a short, but unique vocabulary of Lieutenant Emory's.
NEW MEXICAN ABORIGINES. 395
inhabitants, public squares, parallel streets, and stone
houses.
5. Zuni. — East of the Moqui, in numbers from 1,000 to
1,500 souls, and about 150 miles west of the Rio del
Norte. Evidence modern. " They profess the Catholic
faith, cultivate the soil, have manufactures, and possess
considerable quantities of stock." — Gregg. " The Soones
build houses in the solid rock. Many of them are Albi-
nos, the probable origin of the report of a race of white
Indians in this quarter. They resemble the Pimos in
habits." — Lieut. Emory, from the communication of a Go-
co-maricopas Indian.
The Zuni, or Soones, bring us out of California, and
into New Mexico. The character of the civilisation is,
however, the same. So are the difficulties of the ethno-
graphy.
Conterminous with the Zuni, and amongst the most west-
ern, though not the most northern of the New Mexican
aborigines, are —
6. The Indians of the Bio San Jose. — This is a feeder
of the River Puerco, itself a westernly feeder of the upper
part of the Rio del Norte. Their villages are seven in
number — 1 . Cibolleta* 2. Moquino,* 3. Poquate, 4. Co-
vero, 5. Laguna, 6. Rito (now deserted), and 7. Acomo.
7. The Indians of the parts about Abo and Quarra. —
South-east of the Indians of the San Jose, and on the
opposite bank of the Rio del Norte, lie the seven villages
of 1. Chititi, 2. Tageque, 3. Torreon, 4. Mansana, 5.
Quarra (deserted, and with ruins), 6. Abo (the same), 7.
Quivira.* The ruins, both of Quarra and Abo, are of
stone, with foundations above 100 feet in length, and in
the shape of crosses. One of the easiest passages across
* The meaning of the Italics may be seen in p. 397.
396 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
the ridge that divides the prairie country belonging to
the water-system of the Mississippi is along the stream
on which Abo is situated.
North of these, and nearer the head-waters of the Rio
del Norte (or Rio Grande) come —
8. Indians speaking the Piro language. — These are the
Taos, Picuri, and others.
9. Indians who speak (or spoke) the Hemez* (or Yemez)
languages. — The Pecos, Cienega, and others in the high-
lands east of the Rio del Norte, and between that river
and the River Pecos. These were anciently known as
Tagnos, whilst their language is said to be that of the
Hemez.*
Now the names Taos, Tagnos, Tigue, and Tegua, cre-
ate a difficulty. Gallatin remarks that the last two are
forms of the same words. I think so, too. But then I
also think that all four words are the same, or, if not, that
Taos and Tagnos are, at least, so. If this be true, the
Taos are made to speak the Piro language and the He-
mez as well. Nay more, a third language distinguished
from both (the Piro and Hemez) is mentioned, viz., the
Tegua, spoken by a large portion of the others, all of
whom had, originally, this general name, though some seem
to have been distinguished as Queres, probably the Quivix
or Quirix of Castaneda.
Be this, however, as it may, the northernmost Indians
of New Mexico bring us in contact with a section of the
Indians of the Mississippi system already mentioned, the
Arrapahos, whilst the southern are in contact with the
ill-ascertained tribes of Texas. In Texas, however, we
have traces of the Casas Grandes ; in the high-land between
* The meaning of the italics may be seen in p. 397.
CROSS-TIMBERS. 397
New Mexico and Texas we have the famous Llano
Estocado. This means a trail or line of road marked
out by stakes placed in nearly a straight line, and at
intervals to indicate its course. Under the name of
the Cross-Timbers, this has attracted the notice of several
travellers, and has been especially described in a paper laid
before the Geographical Society, by Mr. Catlin.
The reason why certain names have been printed in
italics, a fact to which the reader's attention was directed
by notes,* will now be explained. They all agree in
introducing complications in the ethnology from the fact
of their occurring elsewhere. Thus — •
a. The term Moqui, as a synonym to Waikuru^ appears
as the name of the Monki of the Gila.
5. The name Moquino does the same.
c. The Cora, of California, is the name of a language
in New Galicia.
d. The Yemez of New Mexico reappears in California.
And—
e. Lastly, the word Cibotteta^ the name of a village on
the Rio del Norte, is inconveniently, like the term Cibola,
expressly applied by the early Spanish writers to a country
on the Rio Colorado.
This last remark suggests a new train of facts, viz., the
comparison between the early Spanish and the recent
American accounts. Upon the whole they agree. At any
rate, the former bear evidence that the civilization — such
as it is — which is under notice, is of home growth, rather
than European in its origin, a view that cross-shaped
ground-plans, as well as other circumstances, might
suggest.
Finally, we find by comparing one account with another
either real additions to our divisions of the popula-
398 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
tions, or else new names. Such are, probably, amongst
others —
1. The Nijoras. — Mentioned by Sedelmayer, in 1748,
as occupying the River Azule (?) a feeder of the River
Gila.
2. The Tomplras — Mentioned by Benavides, Superior
to the Franciscan mission in New Mexico, in a work
printed in 1630, and stated to amount to 10,000 souls, in
fifteen villages. Conterminous with the Taos and —
3. The Pecos. — On the head-waters of the river so-
named, inhabitants to the amount of 2000, of a single
village. This also is on the authority of Benavides.
4. 5. 6. The Xumana, Lana, and Zura. — Mentioned
by Prichard, whose list is taken from Hervas rather than
from the Mithridates, as being New-Mexican languages.
We are now free to return to the south of the Gila,
or rather south of the Pimos and Coco-maricopas of its
southern bank.
Due south of these come an irregularly distributed
branch of the Paducas — the Apaches.
South of these, and engendering a complication which
arises from the name, come
The Pima. — Of these we find, in the Mithridates,*"
notice of three dialects or languages — a. The Pima Pro-
per, 5. the Opata, c. the Eudeve. Said to be allied to —
THE TARAHUMARA.
Locality. — New Biscay, Eastern part of Sinaloa, north part of Durango, Chihu-
ahua as far as 30° N.L., i.e. the upper portion of the Sierra Madre, or the watershed
to the western feeders of the Rio Grande and River Yaqui, and others falling into
the Gulf of California.
* We have no vocabulary of the Pimos Indians of the Gila, north of the
Apaches.
THE TARAHUMARA. 399
Casas Grandes occur in the Taraliumara area. The
following descriptions, probably applying to the same
building, certainly apply to a very remarkable one.
" This edifice is constructed on the plan of those of
New Mexico, that is, consisting of three floors, with a
terrace above them, and without any entrance to the
lower floor. The doorway is in the second story, so that
a scaling ladder is necessary ; and the inhabitants of New
Mexico build in this manner, in order to be less exposed
to the attacks of their enemies. No doubt the Aztecs
had the same motives for raising their edifices on this plan,
as every mark of a fortress is to be observed about it,
being defended on one side by a lofty mountain, and the
rest of it being defended by a wall about seven feet thick,
the foundations of which are still existing. In this for-
tress there are stones as large as a mill stone to be seen :
the beams of the roof are of pine, and well-finished. In
the centre of this vast fabric is a little mount, made on
purpose, by what appears, to keep guard on, and observe
the enemy. There have been some ditches found in this
place, and a variety of domestic utensils, earth pans,
pots, jars, and little looking-glasses of itztli (obsidian).""
" Casas Grandes is one of the few ruins existing in
Mexico, the original owners of which are said to have
come from the north, and I, therefore, determined to exa-
mine it. Only a portion of the external walls is standing ;
the building is square, and of very considerable extent ;
the sides stand accurately north and south, which gives
reason to suppose that the builders were not unversed in
astronomy, having determined so precisely the cardinal
points. The roof has long lain in the area of the build-
ing, and there are several excavations said to have been
made by the Apache Indians to discover earthenware.
400
AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
jars, and shells. A specimen of the jars I was fortunate
enough to procure, and it is in excellent preservation.
There were also good specimens of earthen images in
the Egyptian style, which are to me at least so perfectly
uninteresting, that I was at no pains to procure any of
them. The country here, for an extent of several
leagues, is covered with the ruins of buildings capable of
containing a population of at least 20,000 or 30,000
souls. Casas Grandes is, indeed, particularly favour-
able for maintaining so many inhabitants. Situated by
the side of a large river which periodically inundates
a great part of the low surrounding lands, the verdure is
perpetual. There are ruins also of aqueducts, and, in
short, every indication that its former inhabitants were
men who knew how to avail themselves of the advan-
tages of nature, and improve them by art ; but who they
were and what became of them, it is impossible to tell.
On the south bank of the Bio Gila there is another speci-
men of these singular ruins ; and it may be observed,
that wherever these traces are found, the surrounding
country invariably possesses great fertility of soil, and
abundance of wood and water." *
The Papagos, or Papabi-cotam. — These speak the same
language as the Pimas, by whom they are, nevertheless,
despised.
The Tahu, Pacasca, and Acasca. — Mentioned by Cas-
telnada, writing about A.D. 1560, as being spoken near the
Culiacan.
TEPEGUANA.
Locality. — The coast of Sinaloa, north of the Cora area.
Dialects (?) — Tepeguana, Topia (Tubar), Acaaxe(?) Xixime, Sicuraba, Hina,
and Hiumi.
* Travels in the Interior of Mexico, p. 465.
TOTONACA AREA. 401
The Tubar occupied the head-waters of the River Sina-
loa ; as such they were conterminous with the western
Tarahumaras.
The Acaxee is, probably, the Acasca of Castelnada.
MAYA (?).*
Locality. — Coast between the River Sinaloa and River Yaqui.
Language. — Spoken by the natives of the River Yaqui, Zuaque (?), and Maya.
Guazave. — The Guazave language is mentioned as being
that of the coast of Sinaloa. Whether it was different
from the Maya dialects is doubtful.
The Ahome was a dialect of the Guazave.
ZOE (?).
HUITCOLE (?).
Probably the same as the Huite, stated by Hervas to speak a different lan-
guage from the —
CORA.
Locality. — Southern part of Sinaloa ; i.e. the valley of the Culiacan.
Dialects. — Three.
The Cora and Tarahumara have each been recognized
as presenting signs of philological affinity with the Astek
of Mexico.
PIRINDA.
TARASCA.
Localities. — Mechoacan.
TOTONACA.
Locality. — Parts about the present city of Vera Cruz.
Although lying nearly within the same latitude as
Mexico, the Totonaca area is that of the low coast, rather
than of the lofty table-land, consequently it is part of the
Sierra Calida, with a tropical climate, rather than of the
Sierra Tertiplada or Fria, where the elevation of the
Anahuac mountain-range effects a change in the physical
conditions within the same latitude, which has doubtless
been a considerable ethnological influence.
* Seep. 410.
D D
402 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
The Huasteca, spoken between the Totonaca area and
the Texian frontier, in the parts about the present town of
Tampico, has yet to be noticed. It is, however, a lan-
guage whereof the geographical and ethnological positions
are at variance ; its affinities of the latter kind being with
a language spoken far south of it, and separated from it by
the Totonaca area.
Is the preceding list exhaustive, i.e. for the parts be-
tween Mexico Proper and California, for Sonora, Sinaloa,
Chihuahua, Cohuahuila, Tamaulipas, Zacatecas, and Du-
rango ? I am not able to say. The following may be,
a. the names of mere dialects ; b. of separate substantive
languages ; c. or, finally, synonyms for some tongue
already noticed.
The Guaima. — Mentioned by Prichard — whose list of
the Mexican languages is taken from Hervas, rather than
the Mithridates — as being spoken in Sinaloa.
Paine. — Mentioned by Prichard, &c., as being spoken
in Huastecapan, or the country of the Huasteca language.
If other than the latter, it has a place in the present part
of the work. If not, it conies, more properly, amongst
the Maya tongues.
Matlazinga. — Mentioned by Prichard as being spoken
in the valley of Toluca in Mexico.
Cuitlateca. — Mentioned by Prichard as being spoken in
the diocese of Mexico.
The Mokorosi. — This term is noticed because I find, in
Jlilg, a " Vocabolario de la Lengua Mocorosi. Mexico,
1599."
The Capita. — This term is noticed because an Arte de la
Lengua Capita (Mexico, 17-37), is mentioned in Jiilg,
accompanied with the notice that it represents a language
(or dialect) of the north of Mexico.
THE OTOMI LANGUAGE. 403
THE OTOMI.
Localities.— N.E. parts of Mechoacan. Head- waters of the River Santiago.
Dialects. — 1. Otomi Proper. 2. Mazahui.
Casas Grandes occur in all the parts lately enumerated.
A great complication in the philological ethnography, is
introduced by the Otomi dialects.
In a dissertation of Don Emmanuel Naxera's,* the
author gives reasons for considering the Otomi to be a
remarkable exception to the general character of the Ame-
rican languages. It is so far from being polysynthetic that
it is monosyllabic. A fact like this was not likely to be
underrated. The vicinity of the Otomi area to the Aztek,
the semi-Asiatic character of the Mexican civilization, the
analogies between it and the Japanese, were all circum-
stances likely to bring the populations of the Chinese type
into the field of comparison. Hence the Otomi, after
being in the first place disconnected with the American
family of languages, ran the chance of being specially, and
to the exclusion of the other tongues of the New World, con-
nected with the Asiatic ; and. herein, with those of the
Seriform tribes and nations.
With his accustomed caution, Gallatin satisfies himself
with saying what others have thought upon the matter,
more especially the author of the dissertation in question ;
evidently, in his own mind, admitting no more than an
analogy, not an affinity, with the Chinese.
The present writer doubts much whether even the facts
of the case are yet ascertained, much less the true appre-
ciation of their import.
J. He thinks that it has yet to be determined whether
the comparative absence (if real) of inflections has arisen
from the loss of forms previously existing, or from the non-
* Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 1835.
n D 2
404 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
development of them in toto. In the latter case only the
language would be in the predicament of the Seriforni
tongues, or aptotic ; whereas in the former its parallel
would be the English, an anaptotic language.
2. He thinks that the whole aspect of the question might
be materially altered by changing the manner of putting
it ; i.e. by asking not whether the Otomi differs from the
other American languages in being monosyllabic rather
than polysynthetic, but by inquiring whether the other
American tongues may not agree with the Otomi in being
more monosyllabic than is generally supposed.
This latter point is one of great importance ; — the fact
of two such extreme forms of language as the mono-
syllabic and polysynthetic meeting has been shown by
Schoolcraft in his remarks upon the structure of the Algon-
kin languages ; the a priori likelihood of such a phseno-
menon being very great. The details of the transition
itself, however, we see but imperfectly. That they are to be
found, however, in the comparative philology of the Seri-
form tongues is undoubted. Here, even the difference, so
important in the American tongues, between the animate
and inanimate plural is foreshadowed ; whilst the other
so-called peculiarity of the polysynthetic tongues — the
incorporation of the pronoun expressing the object with the
verb, is only a fuller development of the principle which
gives us, in the common languages of Europe, the reflective
and middle forms. In the Icelandic Jcallast (= katta siq
\ «/
= calls himself, originally Jcalla -<sc), the incorporation of
the name of the object is as truly a part of the grammar as
it is in any American tongue whatsoever.
Again, more than one philologist has suggested that
many American agglutinations are (like such forms as je
e, if written jelaime), instances of what may be
THE OTOMI LANGUAGE.
405
called a mere printer's polysyntheticism, *. e. points of
spelling rather than of real language.
Such are fragments of the criticism which breaks down
two classes of differences at once ; those between the
Otomi and the other languages of America, and those
between the American and non- American tongues in
general.
On the other hand, it should be added that if, irrespec-
tive of such criticism, the Otomi language be, in its voca-
bles, wholly M»-American, the evidence in favour of its
philological isolation is just as good as if, over and above
the fact of its being monosyllabic, the transition from
monosyllabicism to polysyntheticism were a philological
impossibility ; still more so, if its affinities are with any
other language, e.g. the Chinese.
Now, upon this point I have made three series of com-
parisons.
1 . The Otomi with the Seriform languages, en masse.
2. The same words from another American language
(the Maya) with the same Seriform languages.
3. The Otomi and a variety of other American lan-
guages.
Of these the first two are as follows : —
English, man
Otomi, nanyeJie
Kuanchua, nan
Canton, nam
Tonkin, nam
English, woman
Otomi, nitsu
.... nsu
Kuanchua, niu
Canton, niu
Tonkin, nu
English, son
(1)
Otomi, batsi
.... iso
Kuanchua, dsu
Canton, dzi
Mian, nu
Maplu, possa
Play, aposo
.... naputhae
Passuko, posaho
English, hand
Otomi, ye
Siuanlo, he
Cochin China, act—arm
406
AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
English^ foot
Otomi, #wa
Pey, ha=leg
Pape, ha, Ju>=do
Kuanchua, kio
Canton, Ttoh
Moitay, kcho
English, bird
Otomi, ttzintey
Maya, chechetch
Tonkin, tclteni
Cochin China, tchiny
English, sun
Otomi, hiadi
Canton, yat
English, moon
Otomi, rzana
Siuanlo, dzan
Teina, son
English, star
Otomi, tzc
Tonkin, sao
Cochin China, sao
Maplu, shia
Play, ska
.... sha
Passuko, za
Colaun, assa
English, water
Otomi, dehe
Tibet, tchi
Mian, zhe
Maplu, ti
Colaun, tui
English, stone
Otomi, do
Cochin China, ta
Tibet, rto
English, rain
Otomi, ye
Chuanchua, yu
Canton, yu
Colaun, yu
English, fish
Otomi, hua
Chuanchua, yu
Canton, yu
Tonkin, ka
Cochin China, ka
Play, ya
Moan, ku
English, good
Otomi, manho
Teilung, ivanu
English, bad
Otomi, hing
.... hio
Chuanchua, o
Tonkin, hu
Play, gyia
English, great
Otomi, nah
.... tide
.... noihoc
Chinese, to, da
Anam, Jui
Play, do, uddo
Pey, nio
English, small
Otomi, ttygi
Passuko, tcheka
English, eat
Otomi, tze tza
Chinese, shi
Tibet, shie
Mian, tsha
Myamma, sa
English, sleep
Otomi, aha
Chuanchua, wo, uo
THE OTOMI LANGUAGE.
407
(2)
English, son
Maya, lakpal
.... palal— children
Myiunraa, lugala
Teilung, lukwun
English, head
Maya, pol, hool
Kalaun, mollu
English, mouth
Maya, chi
Chuanchua, keu
Canton, hou
Tonkin, kau
Cochin China, kau
Tibet, ka
English, hand
Maya, cab
Huasteca, cubac
Maplu, tchoobah—arm
Play, tchoobah—do
Passuko, tchoobawh—do
English, foot
Maya, uoc, oa
Chuanchua, Mo
Canton, kon
Moitay, cho
English, sun
Maya, kin
Colaun, koni
Moan, kntia
Teiya, kawan
Teilung, kangun
Pey, kanguun
English, moon
Maya, u
Chuanchua, yue
English, star
Maya, ek
Mean, kie
Miamma, kyi
English, water
Maya, ha
Myamma, ya
English, rain
Maya, chaac
Mapliij tchatchang
Passuko, tatchu
English, small
Maya, mehen
Tonkin, man
English, eat
Maya, hanal
Tonkin, an
Play, ang
English, bird
Maya, cltechitch
Tonkin, tchim.
English, fish
Maya, ca
Tonkin, ka
English, great
Maya, noh
Pey, nio
The third, so far from isolating the Otomi from the
other languages of America, exhibits more than an average
number of miscellaneous affinities, especially with the lan-
guages of California.
As to the Chinese and the other Seriform tongues, the
question is not how like they are to the Otomi, but how much
408 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
more like they are to the Otomi than to the Maya. And here
the difference in favour of the Otomi is even less than we
expect ; since (merely from the doctrine of chances) two
(or more) languages with short words will have a greater
number of similarities (real or accidental) than two (or
more) dissyllabic or polysyllabic languages.
So far, then, from isolating the Otomi as much as
Naxera has done, I am disinclined to adopt, to their full
extent, the far more moderate views of Molina and Gallatin;
admitting at the same time that, of all the tongues of the
New World, its structure, from being either anaptotic or
imperfectly agglutinate, is the most remarkable.
The rude and imperfect civilization of the Otomis has
often been contrasted with the better developed character
of the —
MEXICANS (ASTEK).
Strictly speaking, this is a geographical rather than an
ethnological term ; perhaps it is more political than geo-
graphical. It means, as nearly as can be, the kingdom of
Montezuma, as it was found by the Spanish conquerors of
the fifteenth century. This seems, historically speaking, to
have consisted of several states, more or less incorporated
with that of the sovereign city ; incorporated either in the
way of confederation, as was the case with Tescuco, or
as subject nations like the more distant dependencies. In
the consolidation of the Mexican empire, I see nothing that
differs in kind, from the confederacies of the Indians of the
Algonkin, Sioux, and Cherokee families, although in degree,
it had attained a higher development than has yet appeared ;
and I think that whoever will take the trouble to compare
Strachey's % account of Virginia, where the empire of
Powhattan had, at the time of the colonization, attained its
* Published by the Hackluvt Society.
THE MEXICANS.. 409
height, with Prescott's Mexico, will find reason for break-
ing down that over-broad line of demarcation which is so
frequently drawn between the Mexicans and the other
Americans.
I think, too, that the social peculiarities of the Mexicans
of Montezuma are not more remarkable than the external
conditions of climate, soil, and land-and-sea relations ; for
it must be remembered that, as determining influences,
towards the state in which they were found by Cortez, we
have —
1 . The contiguity of two oceans.
2. The range of temperature arising from the differences
of altitude produced by the existence of great elevation,
combined with an inter-tropical latitude, and the con-
sequent variety of products.
3. The absence of the conditions of a hunter-state ; the
range of the buffalo not extending so far as the Anahuac.
4. The abundance of minerals.
Surely these are sufficient predisposing causes for a very
considerable amount of difference in the social and civiliza-
tional development.
South of Mexico we have several languages of a small
and one of a large area. The former are as follows : —
Mlxteca — Spoken in Oaxaca.
Zapoteca — Ditto .
Popoluca — Ditto.
Chiapa — Spoken in Chiapa.
Zoques — Spoken on the sea-coast, about Tobasco.
Tzendales — Spoken from Oomitau to Palenque.
Lacandona — Chiapa.
Chonchona — Ditto.
Mazateca — Ditto.
The Mam — Guatemala, in the province of Vera Pax.
410 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
The Pochoncki — Chorti — Quiche — Spoken in Guatemala.
Allied languages, or dialects. — Gallatin.
Kachiquel — I bid .
Sinca — Guatemala, on the Pacific, from Escuintla to the
Rio des Esclavos.
Utlateca — Guatemala.
Subtugil — Ditto .
Chorotega — Nicaragua.
CJiontal — Ditto.
Orotina — Ditto.
Respecting the locality of the last three languages there
is, at least, a tradition that, over and above the original
population, there was also, at the time of the conquest, a
colony of Mexicans in Nicaragua. I say, at least a tradi-
tion, because it is stated that the so-called Pipil Indians,
on the coast of the Pacific, speak a Mexican dialect, and
also that the remains of Mexican art in Nicaragua are
both numerous and definite ; in which case the evidence
is improved : still it is by no means conclusive.
Such are the minor groups, all of uncertain value, for
central America, i.e. for the parts between Mexico and the
Isthmus, with two exceptions.
THE MAYA.
Divisions. — 1. The Maya Proper. 2. The Huasteca.
Localities. — 1. The Maya Proper in Yucatan. 2. The Huasteca, in the parts
about Tampico.
Area. — Discontinuous.
The discontinuity of the Maya area is effected by the
interposition of Totonaca and other languages ; the dis-
covery of the community of origin between populations so
different as those of Yucatan and country round Tampico
being one of the valuable notices of the Mithridates.
The value of the Maya-Huasteca (or Huasteca- Maya)
group, is wholly undetermined. Probably it should
MAYA AREA. 411
extend to the inclusion of the Poconchi and several other
tongues of Guatemala.
# # * * * #
The further we approach the narrowest part of the
Isthmus the more fragmentary is our ethnology. It loses,
however, none of its importance, since it is by the way of
the Isthmus that we find the most direct geographical
transition from North to South America.
And here the division must be made between — a, those
Indians who seem to have partaken of a civilization of the
Mexican type, — and 5, those who do not.
The former alternative was probably the case (more or
less) with all the divisions already enumerated ; the latter
with the Indians of Panama, the islands, and the Moskito
Coast.
The following is a notice of a tribe on the sea-coast, at
present either extinct or incorporated with some other, but
well known to the old buccaneers.
* " The next day we got ashore in one of them [the islands]
in hopes of getting some corn, but met with none but a few
poor wretches, who had been stripped of all by the priva-
teers, who also frequently made them their slaves ; for they
are very fit for that purpose, being of a low stature but strong
limbed ; for the rest they are of a dark olive colour, with
round faces, black hair, and small eyes of the same colour :
with eye-brows hanging over their eyes, low foreheads,
short, thick, and flat noses, full lips, and short chins.
They have a peculiar fashion of cutting holes in the lips of
the boys whilst yet infants, which they keep open with
small pegs till they are fourteen or fifteen years of age ;
then they put in them something resembling a long beard
made of tortoise-shell. Both boys and girls have holes
* Dampier's Voyages.
412 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
bored in their ears, which by degrees they stretch to the
bigness of a crown-piece, and wear in them round and
smooth pieces of wood, so that their ears seem wood, unless
only in a small skin. As they have very little feet (not-
withstanding they are bare- footed), so the females take a
great pride in their legs, which they tie very hard from the
ankle to the beginning of the calf with a piece of calico,
which renders their calfs very round and beautiful. They
have no other clothing but a clout about their middle."
The nearest remaining representatives of the aborigines
thus described are the- —
MOSKITO INDIANS.
Locality. — The Moskito Coast.
Language. — Peculiar.
Like the Indians of the original territory of the United
States and Canada, the Europeans with which the Mos-
kito Indians come in contact are of English, rather than
Spanish, extraction ; besides which, there is a consider-
able intermixture of Negro blood.
The language, for which we have a fair amount of data,
has fewer miscellaneous affinities than any hitherto ex-
amined. Still, this is nothing more than what its geogra-
phical position leads us to expect. The nearest languages
of which we have specimens are those of Guatemala on
one side, and the northern part of South America on the
other. For the contiguous areas of Honduras, San Sal-
vador, and Costa Rica we have no specimens.
The Isthmus of Panama leads us from North to South
America. Here the first tribe of importance which presents
itself is —
THE MUYSCA.
Locality. — New Granada. Extinct.
Language. — Peculiar ; known, however, only from a few words collected by
the Abbate Gilii. — See Mithritlates.
Civilization. — The same (or nearly the same) with that of Mexico and Peru.
THE QUIXOS. 413
1. Besides the Muysca, however, there were, most pro-
bably, two or three mutually unintelligible languages
spoken in the Isthmus of Darien, and the following ten (all
now extinct), in New Grenada. 1. The Agnala ; 2. the
Caivana ; 3. the Chimeca ; 4. the Kurumene ; 5. the
Gorrane ; 6. the Guaraepoana ; 7. the Guarica ; 8. the
Natagaima ; 9. the Cueca ; and 10. the Chiaczake. —
Mithridates.
We now follow the line of the Andes, omitting for the
present the consideration of their eastern declivity, and
limiting ourselves to the mountain-range itself and the
narrow strip between it and the Pacific. This brings
us, probably, through the districts of the 1 . Masteles ;
2. Chorri ; 3. Pichilumbuy ; and, 4. Quillacingse, to the
country of the ancient
QUIXOS (QUITOS).
Locality. — Quito.
At the present moment, and even in the sixteenth cen-
tury, the language of Quito was the Quichua. It is con-
sidered, however, although I have not investigated the
evidence, that the aboriginal languages of the country,
spoken before the conquest of the Incas, belonged to a
different class of tongues ; and that the Quiteno dialect
of the Peruvian is a recent introduction.
Be this as it may, the population which now comes
next is —
THE QUICHUA.
Locality. — From the Equator to 28° south latitude ^continuously ; the
Quichua area being interrupted about 15° south latitude by the Aymaras.
Limited almost exclusively to the plateau of the Andes and to its western slope.
Numbers, according to D'Orbigny, 934,707 pure, 458,572 mixed.
THE AYMARA.
Locality. — From 15° to 20° south latitude. The parts around the Lake
Titicaca, and the ruins of Tiaguanaco. Conterminous with and (almost ?) sur-
rounded by the Qnichuas.
Numbers, according to D'Orbigny, 372,397 pure, 188,237 mixed.
414 AMERICAN MONGOLIDjE.
YUNOA.
Locality. — The valley of Cincha, in the diocese of Truxillo. Extinct.
Synonym. ( ? ) — Mochika. Perhaps the name for a separate dialect.
PUQUINA.
Locality. — The diocese of La Paz. Extinct.
Probably these, with the Quixos, may represent the
earlier population of the Andes anterior to the spread of
the Peruvian Incas of the Quichua stock.
THE ATACAMAS.
Locality. — The Provinces of Taracapa and Atacama. Conterminous with the
Aymaras, Quichuas, and Moluche.
Synonyms. — Olipes, Llipi.
Numbers, according to D'Orbigny, 7348 pure, 2170 mixed.
THE CHANGOS.
Locality. — The Coast of Peru, from 22° to 24° south latitude, conterminous
with the Moluche.
Numbers, according to D'Orbigny, 1000.
Thus far we have followed the line of the Western
Andes in the direction from north to south, along a tract
forming the narrow line between the Cordilleras and the
Pacific, a tract that, politically and historically speaking,
nearly coincides with the empire of the Peruvian Incas, as
it was found by the Spanish conquerors under Pizarro.
For the history of this remarkable empire the reader is
referred to Prescotfs History of Peru ; the criticism that
applies the facts therein found, being, in a great degree,
the criticism which applies to similar civilization of Mexico.
In Chili we find the north-western branch of one of the
great and definite divisions of the South American popu-
lation, which may be called Chileno, Patagonian, Fuegian,
Chileno-Patagonian, &c. as seems most convenient ; the
main fact requisite to be remembered being, that it com-
prises the population of three areas. 1 . Chili ; 2. Pata-
gonia ; 3. Tierra del Fuego.
CHILI. 415
Although for this group of Indians we have no general
and collective names, the subordinate branches are con-
veniently denominated, Moluche, Puelche, Huilliche.
MOLUCHE".
Locality.-— (roughly speaking) — Chili. The word Molu — Western. Molu-cJie=
Western People.
Synonym. — Chileno, Araucanian.
PUELCHK
Locality — (roughly speaking) — south of the Chaco, and east of the Andes, as
far as the Atlantic. The parts east of Chili. The word Puel= Eastern. Puel-c//e
= Eastern People.
Synonym. — Pampa Indians.
HUILLICHE'.
Locality. — Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
Divisions. — a. Patagonians. b. Fuegians.
Extracts respecting the physical appearance of ike Patagonians : —
1. " One of them, who afterwards appeared to be chief, came towards me ; he
was of gigantic stature, and seemed to realise the tales of monsters in a human
shape ; he had the skin of some wild beast thrown over his shoulders, as a Scotch
Highlander wears his plaid, and was painted so as to make the most hideous ap-
pearance I ever beheld. Round one eye was a large circle of white ; a circle of
black surrounded the other, and the rest of his body was streaked with paint of
different colours. I did not measure him ; but if I may judge of his height by the
proportion of his stature to my own, it could not be less than seven feet." — Byron.
2. " They have a fine shape ; among those whom we saw not one was below
five feet ten inches and a quarter (English), nor above six feet two inches and a
half in height. Their gigantic appearance arises from their prodigiously broad
shoulders, the size of their heads, and the thickness of all their limbs. They are
robust and well fed ; their nerves are braced, and their muscles strong, and suffi-
ciently hard, &c." — Bougainville.
3. " The medium height of the males of these southern tribes is about five feet
eleven inches. The women are not so tall, but are in proportion broader and
stouter : they are generally plain-featured. The head is long, broad and flat, and the
forehead low, with the hair growing within an inch of the eyebrows, which are
bare ; the eyes are often placed obliquely, and have but little expression ; the nose is
generally rather flat and turned up, but we noticed several with that feature straight
and sometimes aquiline ; the mouth is wide, with prominent lips, and the chin is
rather large ; the jaws are broad, and give the face a square appearance ; the neck
is short and thick ; the shoulders are broad ; the chest is broad and very full ;
but the arm, particularly the forearm, is small, as are also the foot and leg ; the
body long, large, and fat, but not corpulent. Such was the appearance of those
who came under my observation." — King.
The previous extracts have been given because the great
416 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
size of the Patagonians has been noticed by most of the
voyagers who have described them — in some cases with
considerable exaggeration. Illegitimate inferences, more-
over, have been drawn from their supposed contrast to the
Fuegians. These last, more under-sized than over-sized,
and ill-fed fish-eaters, like the Eskimo and Hottentot, have
been separated too far from the populations nearest to them,
and have been considered, by even good writers, as suffi-
ciently distinct from the Indians of the Continent to form a
separate division. Nay more, so much has been made of
their sallow complexion that, in some cases, the Fuegian
has been placed among the Black sections of the human
species, i.e. amongst the Kelsenonesians.
Nevertheless, it is doubtful whether the extreme sections
of the group in question exhibit greater contrasts in phy-
sical appearance than those which the difference of their
physical and social conditions would lead us to expect ; since
the mountain range of the southern Andes, the nomadic
extension of the Pampas, and the insular localities of the
Chonos Archipelago, and the Tierra del Fuego, account
for full as much difference as we find — to say nothing of
the difference of latitude between Cape Horn and the
Peruvian frontier of Chili, in the way of climate. Add to
this the opposition between the vicinity of a semi-civilized
kingdom like that of Peru on the north, and the absolute
isolation of the Tierra del Fuego on the south, as in-
fluences which seriously affect the phsenomena of the social
and civilizational developments. That the typical features
of the so-called copper-coloured Indian of America become
lost as we approach Cape Horn, is a fact of more import-
ance than the height or size of individual families. The
Fuegian is Eskimo in appearance, and the Patagonian
approaches the Fuegian.
THE PATAGONIANS.
417
In Chili we find special notice of a preeminently light-
haired and blue-eyed population — the Boroanos."''"
Fig. 14.
Having now reached the Ultima Thule of the New World
we may look back and ask how far the general phaenomena
and problems connected with the ethnology of South, resem-
ble those of. North America : they do so in many respects.
There are the same physical divisions of elevated table-
land, of open pasture, of steppe, and of forest ; the same
low levels along similar large rivers, and the same swamps
See Prichard, vol. v., p. 479.
E E
418 AMERICAN MOXGOLID.E.
on the sea-shore. And so it is with the distribution of
tribes and races. Large areas, like those of the Algon-
kins and Iroquois, are conterminous with groups of un-
fixed and almost isolated languages : so that what we have
found in Mexico, as opposed to Canada, we shall find in
Central South America, as opposed to Brazil and Peru.
Still there are important points of difference. South
America, like Africa, lies not only between the tropics,
but under the equator. Like Africa, too, only farther than
Africa, it extends towards the Antarctic Circle ; so that
hence we may call the natives of Tierra del Fuego either
the Eskimos of the south, or the Hottentots of the west.
In respect to the abundance and value of its ethnolo-
gical materials, South America, especially for its interior, is
one of the dark spots of the world — it is better known
than Central Africa, and better known than New Guinea :
and saying this we have said all.
And here it may be well to indicate an ethnological
method. In Tierra del Fuego we have one of the six ex-
treme points of population ; i.e. points from which no
population has been supposed to have been determined
elsewhere ; Easter Island, Van Dieman's Land, the Cape
of Good Hope, Lapland, and Ireland, being the other five.
In working the problem as to the original centre of popu-
lation— the birth-place of the human kind — it is these six
points with which we should begin, and so seek their point of
convergence. This is of two kinds, geographical andphilo-
logicol. The first is that part of the earth's surface where
the distance from each is equal (or where it nearest approaches
equality) ; the second, the locality of that language which
has, at one and the same time, the greatest likeness to the
Teapi,* the Tasmanian, the Fuegian, the Hottentot, the
* Of Easter Island.
CENTRE OF POPULATION. 419
Lapponic, and the Gaelic. Of course such centres would
be conventional, and liable to the influence of disturbing
causes. Still they involve a principle that is both safe and
scientific ; and, if the land were one vast circular island,
in the midst of the ocean, and the changes that affect lan-
guage had taken place at a uniform rate throughout the
domain of speech, such a state of things would supply a
conventional ethnological centre.
Such a conventional centre would be the mean point be-
tween the geographical and the philological ones.
******
That the Chileno, Patagonian, and Fuegian populations
are sections of a single stock I have no doubt. Whether,
however, this stock may not contain other branches is un-
certain.
******
There are three frontiers to the northern part of the
area in question — the western, the central, and the eastern.
The western has been already noticed : it is the country of
the Changes, Atacamas, and other portions of the old
Peruvian empire. Nevertheless it is probable, that the
population may be Chileno, and still more likely that it
may be transitional to the Peruvian and Moluche' groups.
The central division has yet to be studied in detail ;
since we have yet to learn at what part of Central South
America the Pampa population changes for that of the
Gran Chaco,* and of what nature this change is. Nay,
the Southern Indians of the Gran Chaco may, like the
southern members of the Peruvian empire, be either Pa-
tagonian (or Pampa-Patagonian) or transitional.
The eastern portion of the division in question is the
parts about the mouth of the River Plata.
* See p. 428.
420 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
The population, which I suppose to have been contermi-
nous with the Patagonians (i.e. the Puel-che portion of
them) is that of —
THE CHARRUAS.
Of the language I have seen no vocabulary. In phy-
sical appearance the Charruas approach the Patagonians ;
and equally akin are they to the fiercer tribes of that
division in their habits and characters.
The Charrua population — for we are now within the
territory of the Spanish Republic, and in areas where the
displacement of the aborigines has been the consequence
of contact with the European — is known only in frag-
ments ; whole sections of it being, at the present moment,
either extinct or incorporated. The original divisions,
however, were as follows : —
1. The Charruas Proper ; 2. the Chayos ; 3. the Cha-
nas ; 4. the Guenoas ; 5. the Martedanes ; 6. the Nibo-
anes ; 7. the Yaros ; 8. the Minoanes ; 9. the Caaiguas ;
10. the Bagaez ; 11. the Tapes. Of these the Chanas and
Niboanes inhabited, at the arrival of the Spaniards, the
islands of the Uruguay, at the junction of the Rio Negro.
The Guenoas and Martedanes connected themselves with
the Portuguese of the Colonia del Sacramiento, and were at
enmity with the Yaros and Minoanes. The Chayos are
the first that disappear from history, probably from having
become amalgamated with the Yaros.
The Charruas proper, from the time of Sob's to the year
J831, have lived the life of a nation of warriors, with their
hand against every man, and every man's hand against them.
Uninterrupted as was their hostility to the Spaniards, it
was equally so against the other aborigines ; so much so,
that in no case do we find a common alliance against the
THE CHARRUAS. 421
common enemy to have existed ; — on the contrary, the
war against the MamaJuco, the Tupi, and the Arachanes,
were wars of extermination. And so was the war against
the Spaniards ; except that the Spaniards were the exter-
minators. In 1831 the President of Uraguay, Rivera,
destroyed the Charruas root and branch ; so that at the
present moment a few enslaved individuals are the only
remains of that once terrible nation.
From eighty to one hundred families lived under the
direction of a Tubiccho, or semi-hereditary chief, and when
danger threatened, the Tubicchos met and chose amongst
themselves a leader. Whoever is chosen commands the
obedience of the rest — the election is half counsel, half
feast. Chicha is drunk ; wounds are exhibited ; exploits
are recounted : the most worthy is selected from his peers.
After this fires are lighted as beacons, and the warriors of
tribes meet from all parts. When they can make the attack,
they do it by night, and at the full-moon. How they treat
their captives is a matter upon which there is a conflict in
the evidence. Ruy Diaz de Guzman denies that they are
cruel to their prisoners. I have no wish to disturb Ruy
Diaz de Guzman 1s evidence. Others, however, have contro-
verted it. Against the fact of their being cannibals there
is the same, and (perhaps) better testimony. Where they
taste human flesh at all, it is done in the spirit of venge-
ance, and not to satisfy appetite. They tasted of the
body of Solis ; and they had good reason to hate him.
Their chief ornaments are the tattoo and the feathers of
the ostrich ; and the favourite colour for their incisions
is blue.
Now I believe that this savage semi-heroic character
of the Charruas is a fair sample of the wilder and more
unsubdued Indians of Chili, Patagonia, and the Gran
422 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
Chaco ; also, that it is equally true of the Araucanians as
described by Ercilla, and the Pampa Indians of Sir E.
Head. And what is this but a repetition of the same
features which we see in the corresponding part of North
America ? Here, when we have got beyond the tropics,
we find the Algonkin, Sioux, and Iroquois warriors, con-
terminous with, and (as the present writer believes) pass-
ing into the feebler Eskimo — these latter bearing the same
relation to their southern neighbours as the Fuegians do
to the northern ones.
Like the Paduca area for North America, the Pampas
and the parts to the north of them are pre-eminently the
country of the horse — so that the ethnology of Mongolia
and Tartary partially re-appears here.
******
In looking back to consider what parts of South Ame-
rica have been described, we find that the long but narrow
strip of the western coast bounded by the Andes and the
Pacific, has been nearly (perhaps wholly) distributed be-
tween three stocks — the Muysca, the Peruvian, and the
Chileno-Patagonian. I say perhaps wholly, because the
Atacamas and Changos are probably referable to one of
these two latter divisions. Again — it is likely that fu-
ture researches may throw these three great groups into
one ; at least such is the inference to be drawn from a
comparison of the Patagonian and Peruvian languages.
To a certain extent, the southern part of the peninsula
is disposed of along with the western ; since it is safe to
say that as far as 30° south latitude (perhaps farther)
the Chileno-Patagonian stock, like the Eskimo and Atha-
baskan, stretches across the breadth as well as along the
side of the continent.
The parts still standing over — two-thirds or more of
INDIANS OF THE MISSIONS. 423
the whole peninsula — are those bounded by the ocean, the
Andes, and 30° south latitude.
Premising that of these three boundaries the last is
artificial and conventional, whilst the two former are natu-
ral, I shall take first in order those areas which, being geo-
graphical or political rather than ethnological, exhibit the
phenomenon, so often met with already, of numerous
groups within narrow compasses. This being done, the
remaining part of the continent will exhibit the contrast
of the wide extension of single families.
******
For the miscellaneous and imperfectly described sections
of the South American population about to be noticed, the
chain of the Andes, in its extension from Panama to Cape
Horn, and in its remarkable parallelism to the coast of the
Pacific, taken along with the three great water-systems
of the Orinoko, the Amazons, and the La Plata, is the
great geographical point of prominence.
Herefrom, about 20° south latitude, a western ex-
tension of mountains and highlands separates the water-
system of the Amazons on the North from that of the
Rio de la Plata on the South.
Distinguishing, then —
1. The Indians of the water-system of the Amazons,
from —
2. The Indians of the water-system of the Plata, and
both from —
3. The Indians of the water-system of the Orinoco — the
first section of the first division consists of the —
I.
INDIANS OF THE MISSIONS.
The distinction here is so far from being ethnological
that it is scarcely geographical. Political, however, as it
424 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
is, it is convenient — since the term itself indicates what
we shall find, viz., a more or less imperfect Christianity
throughout.
A.
Indians of the Mission of Moxos.
MOXOS.
Localities — a. Missions of Carmen de Moxos, Concepcion de Moxos, San Joa-
quin de Moxos.
b. Loreto de Moxos, Trinidad, San Xavier, San Ignacio.
c. To the east of the Missions of Concepcion and Carmen, near the river
Guapore.
Divisions — a. Muchojeones.
b. Baures.
c. Moxos Proper.
Numbers. —
Muchojeones of Carmen 230
Christian Baures 4,178
Pagan Baures 1,000
Moxos 8,212
Total 13,620
ITONAMA.
Locality* — North-east of the province of Moxos. Missions of Magdalena and
San Ramon.
Name. — Native.
Numbers'™. 1830. — At Magdalena, 2,831, at San Ramon, 1,984. Total, 4,815.
All Christian.
Conterminous with the Itenes, Baures, Canickanas, Moxas.
CANICHANA.
Present locality. — The Mission of San Pedro.
Name. — Native.
Numbers in 1830, 1939. All Christian.
MOVIMA.
Present locality. — Mission of Santa Anna.
Original locality. — Banks of the Yacuma.
Conterminous with the Moxos, Canichanas, and Cayuvavas.
Name. — Native.
Numbers in 1830, 1238. All Christian.
Language. — Between the Movima and the Moxas the language is the only im-
portant distinction.
INDIANS OF THE MISSIONS. 425
CAYUVAVA.
Present locality. — Mission of Exaltation, at the northern part of the river Ma-
inore. Originally conterminous with the Movimas, Itenes, the Maropas, and
Pacaguaras.
Number in 1831, 2073. All Christian.
Language. — Between the Cayuvava and the Moxas the language is the only
important difference.
ITE (ITENES).
Locality — The junction of the Itenes and Mamore.
Name. — Native.
Probable number. — From 1,000 to 1,200.
PACAGUARA.
Locality. — The junction of the Beni and Mamore.
SAPIBOCONI.
Locality. — The province of Moxos.
The Sapiboconi are mentioned by Hervas, and, from
him, in the Mithridates. They are not, however, men-
tioned by D'Orbigny, and are probably extinct. Their
language is evidently different from any known tongue of
either Moxos or Chiquitos ; and judging from the com-
parison of the Mithridates, consisting only of seven words,
it seems to be Quichuan rather than aught else.
ENGLISH. SAPIBOCONI. QUICHUA.
Head emata matti
Lightning ilapa illapo.
Stone tumu rumi.
Year mara mara.
B.
Indians of the Mission of Chiquitos.
CHIQUITOS.
Locality. — Centre of the Province of Chiquito.
Name. — Spanish.
Tribes, both existing and extinct, numerous.
Numbers in 1830, 14,925. All Christianized.
Conterminous with the Samucos, Guanos, Guatos, Tobas, Siriones, Guarayos,
Saravecas, Otukes, Tapiis, Covarecas, Paioconecas, Tapacuras.
SARAVECA.
Present locality. — The Mission of Santa Ana, and Casalvalco.
Original locality. — North-eastern limits of the Chiquito tribes.
426 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
Numbers. — At Santa Ana, 250 ; at La Reduction de Casalvalco, 100. All
Christianized.
Except by language, scarcely distinguishable from the Chiquitos.
OTUKES.
Present locality. — The Mission of Santo-Corazon.
Original locality. — North-eastern parts of Chiquitos, on the frontiers of Brazil.
Number. — 150. All Christians.
Except by language, scarcely distinguishable from the Chiquitos.
COVARECA.
Present locality. — The Mission of Santa Ana.
Original locality. — The neighbourhood of the Saravecas and Curuminacas.
Numbers. — About 50.
Language. — Extinct, or almost extinct. Out of a few words collected by
D'Orbigny, one-third Otuk6.
CURUMINACA.
Original locality. — North-east of the province of Chiquitos, between the
Saravecas and the Otuk^s.
Present locality. — 'With Saravecas, at Santa Ana and Casalvalco.
Numbers. — 100 at Santa Ana, 50 at Casalvalco. All Christian.
Language. — Almost or wholly extinct. Out of a few words collected by
D'Orbigny, five out of fourteen resembled the Otuke.
CURAVE.
Present locality. — The Mission of Santa Corazon.
Original locality. — The neighbourhood of the Saravecas and Curuminacas.
Number. — 50.
Language. — Extinct. Said to have been peculiar. If so, the only important
distinction between them and the other Chiquitos.
TAPII.
Present locality. — The Mission of St. Jago de Chiquitos.
Original locality — The neighbourhood of the Otuk6s.
Number. — 50.
Language. — Extinct. Said to have been peculiar. If so, the only important
distinction between them and the other Chiquitos.
CURUCANECA.
Present locality. — Mission of San Rafael.
Original locality. — That of the Saravecas, Otuk<§s, &c.
Number in 1832, about 50.
Language. — Extinct. Said to have been peculiar. If so, the only important
distinction between them and the other Chiquitos.
CORABECA.
This nation was conducted by the Jesuits to the Mis-
sion of San Rafael ; its original locality having been to
INDIANS OF THE MISSIONS. 427
the south of that settlement, on the borders of the Gran
Chaco. Here they became unmanageable, and escaped to
the woods — it is supposed to those of their original home.
At present, the numbers were put by D'Orbigny's in-
formants at 100 : their language being said to be peculiar.
PAIOCONECA.
Present locality of the Christian Paioconecas. — The Mission of Conception.
Original locality. — The head-waters of the Rio Blanco and Rio Verde ;
16° south latitude, 63° west latitude from Paris. Hither, it is supposed, 'some
of the more intractable Paioconecas of Concepcion have escaped.
Conterminous with the Chiquitos, Saravecas, and the Chapacuras of Moxos.
Numbers of the Paioconecas of Concepcion, 360.
Particular Tribe. — Paunacas, 250 in number.
SAMUCU.
Localities. — South and south-east portions of the province of Chiquitos, on the
limits of the Gran Chaco.
Conterminous with the Guanos, Guatos, Curaves, Xarayes, Otukes, Saravecas,
Curuminacas, Paunacas, and Paioconecas.
Name. — That of a particular tribe extended to the whole nation. Other Sa-
mucu tribes, still existing, are the Morotocos, the Potureros, and the Guaranocos.
Habitat. — Forests, subject to inundations, when they retire to the hills.
The last three or four families have illustrated a com-
mon phenomenon in the ethnology of these parts ; indeed,
of many other parts of America as well, especially the
United States.
It by no means follows that the existing locality of any
section of the aboriginal population is the real natural
and original one. On the contrary, wherever we find
them Christianized, or semi-civilized, the chance is in
favour of their having been moved from the original habi-
tat to some so-called Reserve or Mission, and vice versa.
Now the Indians of the Reserves and Missions are almost
always modificated in character as well as frequently
mixed in blood. On the other hand, although less typi-
cal in the way of ethnological characteristics they are
the best known, on account of the greater opportunities of
428 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
intercourse ; the laborious and successful Jesuit Mission-
aries of Spanish America being the chief authorities.
n.
THE INDIANS OF THE CHACO.
Politically the Chaco, or Gran Chaco, is the tract nomi-
nally belonging to the inland and northern republics of the
so-called Argentine Confederation, rather than to Bolivia ;
whilst geographically it is the water-system of the Paraguay
and Upper La Plata, rather than of the Amazons. Ethno-
logically it is characterized by being the area of a civiliza-
tion, which even when compared with that of Moxos and
Chiquitos, is imperfect, — of a still more imperfect and
partial Christianity, and of tribes which are at once no-
madic, warlike, and independent ; approaching, in their
moral characters, the Charruas and Patagonians rather
than the Peruvian.
The Indians of this part are either equestrian and no-
madic, or else partially settled in villages ; this latter
being generally the case where the forests are densest, and
where the river-sides afford tracts of alluvial (and often
half inundated) soil. Our knowledge of them is pre-
eminently scanty ; still such vocabularies as are known
exhibit miscellaneous affinities with the languages of other
tribes of South America in general.
THE ABIPONIANS.
Divisions. — 1. Abiponians Proper. 2. Mbocobis and Tobas. 3. Lenguas.
4. Payaguas. 5. Mataguayos. 6. Mbayas.
Subdivisions. — Of the Mataguayos. The Chaes (Qu. ? Guanas), the Yoes,
the Matacos, Begosos, Chunipis, and Oeolis.
Localities. — a. Of the Abiponians, the central parts of the Cliaco, conterminous
with b, the Mbocobis and Tobas conterminous with the Araucanians of Chili, c.
Of the Lenguas, the central parts of the Chaco. d. Of the Payaguas, the banks
of the Paraguay as far as its junction with the Parana, e. Of the Mataguayos, the
parts between the Pilcomayo and Vennejo. /'. Of the Mbayas, the eastern shore
of the Paraguay.
BRAZILIAN TRIBES.
429
The Guayanas. — I am unable to say how far this is the
same tribe as the Chanes and Guanas.
Tlte Calchaquis. — In the time of Dobrizhofer, nearly
extinct at present, most likely wholly so. — Equestrian.
Malbalaes, Mataras, Palomos, Mogosnas, Oregones, Aqui-
lotes, Ckurumates, Ojotades, Tanos, Qitamalcas, — probably
extinct ; at least they are placed by Dobrizhofer in the
same category with the Calchaquis. Like the Calchaquis,
also, they were equestrian.
Nalekebits. — Equestrian. Probably Abiponian.
Amokebits. — Ditto.
Yapetalecas. — Ditto.
Oekakakalots. — Ditto.
The Lules. — Pedestrian ; speaking the same language
with
The Vileles and —
The Ysistines. — Pedestrian.
The Tonocote. — Converted and partially settled in towns.
The Homoampas, the Ocoles, the Pazaines, — Chris-
tianized.
The Caypotades and the Ygaronos, like the Zamucus,
removed to the Missions.
III.
BRAZILIAN TRIBES NOT GUARANI.
Explanatory of the words not Guarani, it is necessary to
state that in Brazil begins a distribution of nations and
tribes which, tested by the evidence of language, present
the same phenomenon which is exhibited by the Algonkins
of North America, i.e. a single area of language covering a
vast space, in contrast with numerous areas covering a
small one ; a phenomenon which will be repeated when we
430 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
reach Guiana and Essequibo. To clear, therefore, the
ground, the non-Guarini Brazilians will be disposed of first.
THE BOTOCUDOS.
Synonym. — Aimor6s, Guaymares.
Native name. — Engcraecknung.
Locality. — The Sierra dos Aimores, between the rivers Pardo and Doce, from
18° to 20° south latitude.
Divisions. — 1. The Gherens. 2. The Kinimures.
Language. — Peculiar.
Inhabitants of shady forests, the Botocudos are light-
coloured or yellow-coloured cannibals, with oblique eyes.
THE CANARINS.
Locality. — A small tribe very little known, between the river Mucury and the
river Caravellas, in the Comarca de Porto Seguro.
THE GOITACAS.
Synonyms. — Goyatacaz, Waytaquases.
Called by the Portuguese. — Coroados zrtonsured. By the Coropos — Chakwibu.
Divisions. — 1. Coroados or Goitacas Proper. 2. Puris. 3. Goa'inases (?) 4.
Cariyos (?).
Sub-divisions. — Of the Goitacas. a. Goitacamope. b. Go'itaca-asu. c. Goi'ta-
ca-Iacorito.
Locality. — The rivers Macabe, Cabapuana, and Xopoti for the Goitacas. The
upper part of the river Paraiba, and the interior of the province of Esperito Santo
for the Puris.
The evidence that the Goa'inases, inhabitants of subter-
ranean caves, and more incompletely known than the
partially- civilized Goitacas, belong to this group is incon-
clusive. So is the evidence as to the Cariyos. That the
Puris speak a language closely akin to the Coroados may
be seen in the Atlas Ethnologique.
The unsubdued remnants of the Cariyos, " still wander
about in small bodies in the woods of Sierra dos Orgaos
and in the meadows of the province of San Paulo. De-
scendants of them, settled in villages, are probably found
in the Mission of A Idea da Escada, in the environs of
BRAZILIAN TRIBES. 431
Macabe, Ilha Grande, and the islands of San Sebastian
and San Catharina." — Von Martins.
THE MACHACARI-CAMACAN (of Balbi).
Divisions. — ] . The Machacari. 2. The Patacho. 3. The Camacan. 4. The
Malali.
Subdivisions. — (?) a. Of the Machacari — the Machacari Proper and the Ma-
cuari. b. Of the Caniacan — the Camacan Proper, the Menieng, and the
Cutach6s.
Localities. — Of the Machacaris, the Rio Belmonte, formerly the RioMucury. —
Of the Macuani (Maconi), originally the woody mountains on the boundaries of
Minas Geraes, Porto Seguro, and Bahia ; at present, the neighbourhood of Cara-
vellas. — Of the Patacho, the river Mucury, and the headwaters of the rivers
Pardo and Contas. — Of the Camacan, Bahia, between the rivers de Contas and
Pardo. — Of the Menieng, a domiciled section of the Camacan, the Villa de Bel-
monte.— Of the Malali, Minas Geraes, on the Rio Senchy Pequeno, a northern
tributary of the river Doce.
Synonyms of the Camacans — Mongoy6s, Mongxocos, or Mangajas.
This is a class taken from the Atlas Ethnologique of
Balbi, wherein we find a short specimen of the language
or dialect of each nation enumerated as belonging to it.
Besides these, however, there is, in the same area, i.e.
the parts about the watershed of the rivers Doce, Pardo
Da Contas, &c., on one side, and that of the river San
Francisco on the other.
THE COROPOS (?).
Locality. — Living along with the Coroados, on the river Xipoto.
Language. — Placed by Balbi with the Coroados, by Spix and Martins with the
Macuani.
The discrepancy between the evidence of the two authors
just named, explains the note of interrogation, and induces
me to leave the Coropos as an unplaced tribe.
THE CHACRIABAS (?).
Original locality. — The river Preto, in Pernambuco.
Present locality. — In the district of Desemboque, in Goyaz.
Numbers in 1 830, about 800.
In the paper of Von Martius, the Ohacriabas, although
432 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
placed geographically in the province of Goyaz, are stated
to be, "probably at first a part of the same nation with
the MalahV
THE KIRIRI.
Divisions. — 1. Kiriri Proper. 2. Sabujah.
Locality. — Formerly in the interior of the province of Bahia, now settled in vil-
lages in Caranqueyo, and Villa de Pedra Branca
THE CAPOJOS (CAPOXOS).
Locality. — Mountains between Minas Geraes and Porto Segiiro. Migratory.
THE PANHAMI.
Locality. — Head-waters of the river Mucury, on the Sierra das Esmeraldas.
Migratory.
THE CUMANACHOS.
Locality. — Conterminous with the Capojos.
THE CACHINESES.
Locality. — Minas Geraes, on the Sierra Mantiquiera. Probably either extinct
or incorporated.
THE ARARIS.
Locality. — Minas Geraes, on the river Preto. Probably either extinct or
incorporated.
THE CHUMETOS.
THE PITTAS.
Locality. — Rio de Janeiro, at Valenqa. Present existence doubtful.
THE VOTURONGS (VOTUROES).
THE TACTAYAS.
THE GAMES.
Locality. — The province of San Paolo. Probably conterminous with the Char-
ruas and the tribes of the Chaco.
The next area which will be noticed is the province of
Goyaz, lying to the west of the watershed which sepa-
rates the system of the river Tocantiiis from that of the
river San Francisco, a tract watered by the first-named
of these two rivers, and also by the river Araguaya ; its
southern part belonging to the system of the river Plata.
BRAZILIAN TRIBES. 433
THE GES AND TIMBIRAS.
Probable divisions. — 1. The Ges Proper. 2. The Crans.
Subdivisions, a. of the Ges. — The Norogua-Ges, the Apina-G6s, the Canacata-
Ges, the Mannacob-Ges, the Poncata-Ges, the Pacacab-Ges, the Ao-Ges, the
Cricata-Ges.
6. Of the Crans. — The Saccame-Crans, the Corrume-Crans, the Crurecame-
Crans, the Aponegi- Crans, the Poni-Crans, the Purecame-Crans, the Paragramma-
Crans, the Macame-Crans, the Sape- Crans, and the Jocame- Crans.
Area, — Northern part of Goyaz, on each side of the river Tocantins.
Synonym. — Of the Crans. — Timbiras, Embiras, or Imbiras.
Other tribes of the province of Goyaz, wholly unknown
in respect to their ethnological affinities, are —
1. The Goyaz (?). — These gave the name to the province.
Extinct, or incorporated.
2. The Anicun. — Extinct, or incorporated.
3. The Cayapos (?). — In 1830, about 800 in number, on
the river Grande, a feeder of the river Parana.
4. The Bororos. — On the head- waters of the Araguya.
Falling into two divisions, the Coroados and the Bar-
badoes of the Portuguese.
5. The Aroes.
6. The Tapirakes.
7. The Chimbiwds.
8. The Guapindayds.
9. The Javaes. — Extinct.
10. The Chavantes.
11. The Cherentes (?)
12. The Pochetys. — Cannibals.
13. The Carayas(?).
14. The Cortys.
15. The Tapacoas.
The watershed of the rivers San Francisco and Para-
hyba, comprising part of the provinces of Piauhy, Maran-
ham is the area of — 1. The Acroas ; 2. the Masacaras ;
3. the Jaicos ; 4. the Pimenteiras (Pimento Indians,
F F
434 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
the native name being unknown) ; 5. the Garanhuns ;
6. the Ceococes ; 7. the Romaris ; 8. the Acconans ; 9.
the Carapotos ; 10. the Pannaty.
The whole ethnography here is most obscure. The
Acroa, probably represent a large class. In Martius's
paper they fall into two divisions, the Acroa -assu
(Great), and the Acroa-ining (Little) Acroa. Besides
this, however, separate mention is made of the Acrayds,
with the remark that they are probably the same as the
Acroa. If so, three fresh tribes become Acroa ; viz.,
the Aracujas, the Pontas, and the Goghes — these being
specially stated to be Acrayd.
Again, in the " Atlas Ethnologique " we have a Ge or
Geic vocabulary. It is marked, however, with a note of
interrogation (?), which casts a shade over the light it
would otherwise give. As it is, however, it has consi-
derable affinity to the Timbiras, a fact which, perhaps,
identifies it with the Ges, though it complicates the eth-
nology still more.
The table-land which contains the head-waters of the
river Tabajos, amid the primeval forests of the Mata Grosso,
is the Campos dos Parecis, or the Plain of the Parecis.
This is a convenient centre for the complicated ethnology
of the area next in question, an area bounded (there or
thereabouts) by the rivers Amazons, Madera, and Xingu,
with the Tapajos in the middle of it.
Southward and Westward, — Here the Brazilian popu-
lations come in contact with those of Paraguay, the Chaco,
and the Mission of Chiquitos ; so that probably the ethno-
logy is. partially at least, the same as for those areas.
Here, too, the list of tribes (all unfixed in respect to
their ethnology) is as follows : — 1. The Caupeses ; 2. the
Pacalekes (Flat-heads) ; 3. the Guaxis ; 4. the Cabijis ;
BRAZILIAN TRIBES. 435
5. the Red Cabijis ; 6. the Ababas ; 7. the Puchacas ;
8. the Guajejus ; 9. the Mequens ; 10. the Patitins;
11. the Aricorones ; 12. the Lambys ; 13. the Turna-
rares ; 14. the Coturias ; 15. the Pacas,
Eastward and Northward. — 1. The Maturates ; 2.
Mambares ; 3. the Uyapas ; 4. the Mambriacas ; 5. the
Tamares ; 6. the Sarumas ; 7. the Ubaivas ; 8. the Ja-
curiunas ; 9. the Juajajas ; 10. the Bacuris ; 11. the
Camarares ; 12. the Quariteres ; 13. the Baccahyris ; 14.
the Junienas ; 15. the Cuchipos, probably extinct.
The Parecis formerly the predominant nation of the
Mata Grosso is now nearly extinct, and from want of
data, its ethnological import is undetermined. It is pro-
bable, however, that at least, the Cabijis, the Mambares,
and the Baccahirys, a tribe of Goyaz, are, or were,
Pareci.
The southern bank of the Amazons, including the lower
portions of the rivers Tocantins, Xingu, and Tabajos, a
line coinciding with the northern boundary of the province
of Para, is even more of a terra incognita than the Mata
Grosso, the list of tribes whereof contain no less than
fifty-two names. Of these, but three will be noticed
THE MUNDRUCUS.
Locality. — Between the rivers Mauhe and the Tabajos.
Synonym. — Paighize =. Decapitators ; so-called by their neighbours.
Language. — Known by a vocabulary, with general, but without particular,
affinities.
THE MAUHES.
Locality. — The rivers Mauh6 and Furo Trana.
Divisions.— a. The Tatus (= Armadillo Indians) b. The Tasiwas. c. The
Jurupari Pareira (Devil's Indians), d. The Mucuings (named from an insect).
e. The Jubaras. /. The Writapwuas. g. The Guaribas (Roaring Ape Indians).
h. The Inambus (from a bird so-called), i. The Jawaret£ (Ounce Indians).
.;'. The Saucanes. Tc, Pira-Pereiras (Fish Indians).
F F 2
436 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
The Caribunas are placed by V. Martius in this list,
with the remark that they are probably Caribs. If so,
the rest are, probably, Caribs also.
The Caribunas are also said to be monorchides, but
whether artificially or naturally, is unexplained.
THE MURUS.
Original locality. — The upper part of the river Madera.
Present locality. — The lower part of ditto. Migratory.
Language. — Known by a vocabulary. With general, but without particular
affinities.
And now come the parts over which hangs a darker
obscurity than that which envelopes the ethnology of the
rest of Brazil, viz. the water-system of the river Negro,
and that part of the Amazons which lies east of the
Madera. Geographically, this falls into three divisions —
1. The parts between the Rivers Madera and Ucayale.
2. The parts north of the Amazons, and west of the
river Negro.
3. The parts north of the Amazons, and east of the
river Negro.
1. The parts between the Rivers Madera and Ucayale.
— Here the known frontier westwards is that of the
Quichua area.
The Puru-Purus. — Not known in detail, but said to
have pie-bald skins. Settled on the Lower Puru.
The Yameos. — Speaking a language which, from a Pa-
ternoster in Hervas, seems to be peculiar. Inhabitants
of the river Yavari, and conterminous with a tribe which
politically belongs to Peru, and which (perhaps) brings the
Brazilian tribes in contact with the Quichuan. This is —
The Mainas. — Speaking a language which, from a
Pater-noster in Hervas, seems to be peculiar.
The Chimanos. — On the upper Yavari, speaking an
BRAZILIAN TRIBES. 437
apparently peculiar language, but one with miscellaneous
affinities.
Thirty-three other tribes are enumerated as inhabiting
the area.
2. The parts north of the river Amazons and west of the
river Negro. — Here the known frontier northwards is
that of the tribes of the water-system of the Orinoko,
hereafter to be noticed.
For one of these, out of forty, we have a vocabulary of
the
CORETU.
Locality. — The Upper Apure.
Language. — With general, but without particular affinities.
The Yupuas, on the Tota, a feeder of the Apure, are
said, by V. Martius, to be Coretu.
3. The parts north of the river Amazons, and east of
the river Negro. — Here, as far as the politico-geographi-
cal division which gives a boundary to the empire of
Brazil is concerned, we have nothing but the names of
upwards of a dozen unknown tribes. By remembering,
however, that the eastern frontier of this area is British
Guiana, and by learning that some of the tribes are com-
mon to the two territories we derive some light ; since, for
British Guiana, the researches of Sir Robert Schoinburgk
have converted a (comparatively speaking) terra incognita,
into an area as well understood as some of the better
known parts of North America.
In British Guiana, the tribes not of Carib origin will
be first enumerated ; since in British Guiana the words
not Carib have the same import as the words not
Guarani have in Brazil. Like this last-named lan-
guage in South, and the Algonkin and others in North
America, the Carib is the single language of a large area,
438 AMERICAN MONGOLIDJS.
and like the Gruarani and Algoukin it, as such, stands in
remarkable contrast with numerous languages covering a
small area which are spoken around it.
THE WAROWS.
Locality. — Sea-coast to the north of the Pomeroon river, mixed with the
Arawaks.
Two points give prominence to the Warow tribe — the
existence of a decidedly maritime turn of mind, and the
use of a language which hitherto stands isolated. It has,
however, numerous miscellaneous affinities. A remarkable
want of taste for the enlivening effects of music has been
attributed to many of the tribes of South America. Now,
whatever may be the case with those of Brazil, it is not so
with the Indians of Guiana. Not only does Sir R. Schom-
burgk especially notice the music of the Carib Macusi, but
that of other tribes as well ; amongst which are the Wa-
row, who " possess several instruments, chiefly flutes, made
upon primitive principles ; some of reeds or bamboo, others
of the thigh-bones of animals. The Warau Indians have,
in large settlements, the band-master, or hohohit, whose
duty it is to train his pupils to blow upon flutes made of
reeds and bamboo, in which a small reed, on the principle
of the clarionet, is introduced, and, according to the size of
the opening, it causes a higher or deeper sound, and this is
in some instances powerfully increased by a hollow bamboo,
often five feet long, which is called wauawalli. These rude
musicians are taught, according as their band-master
makes a sign, to fall in with their instruments, and thus
produce an effect similar to the Russian horn-bands. The
effect, chiefly at a short distance, resembles strikingly that
peculiar music of the Russians, and the favourite melody of
the Waraus has something musical in its composition sur-
passing all others."
BRITISH GUIANA TRIBES.
439
TARUMAS.*
Locality. — Upper Essequibo.
Number. — 400.
Measurements of a Taruma about fourteen years of age. — Height, four feet
eleven inches, three-tenths ; circumference of pelvis, two feet, ten inches ; length of
hand six inches, six-tenths ; breadth of hand, three inches.
Notice of three Taruma Skulls, by Professor Owen. — " All female ; two have
rather more prominent foreheads than the Carib ; in the third it curves backward
in the same degree from the interorbital prominence : the nasal bones are broader
and flatter, in other respects they closely agree with the Carib skull : one of
them, a young female about fourteen, presents an abnormal elevation of the upper
and right side of the frontal bone."
WAPITYAN (WAPISIANA).*
Locality. — The Savannahs of the Upper Rupununi, and the banks of the
Parima.
Numbers. — About 400 : reduced by small-pox.
Sub-tribes. — a. Atorais and Dauris; nearly extinct. Number 100. Mixed.
b. Amaripas ; extinct.
Notice of a Wapisiana Skull, by Professor Owen. — " The Wapisiana skull pre-
sents the ovate form, but the occiput is rather more prominent, and the prominent
part more circumscribed : the interorbital space is slightly depressed, owing to the
projection of the supraorbital ridges : the forehead is a little more convex than in
the Carib ; but the general resemblance is as close as that which usually obtains
between the skulls of two individuals of the same race.
MEASUREMENTS.
Supposed age.
Twelve years.
Fifteen years.
Sixteen years.
ft. in. 10th.
485
ft. in. 10th.
460
ft. in. 10th.
5 1 1
Circumference of pelvis . .
267
067
280
060
2 11 5
066
Breadth of ditto
030
028
036
I still postpone the notice of the Carib tribes. The
western extremity, however, of their area leads to the fol-
lowing geographical subsection, viz. that of the Indians of
the Upper and Middle Orinoco.
The most eastern of these are :
SALIVA.
Divisions. — 1. Saliva Proper. 2. Atures. 3. Quaquas (Mapoye) (?). 4.
Macos (Piaroas).
Area. — The rivers Vichada, Guaiare, Meta, Ventuari, and other feeders of
the Orinoco.
Schomburgk, Transactions of the Ethnological Society.
440 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
The Maco (Piaroa) at the mission of Canichana, have
unlearned their vernacular language, and speak (or rather
have been taught by the Missionaries) the Maypure
instead.
The Atures, now extinct, give their name to the Atures
cataracts of the Orinoco. It is also the Atures whose mode
of sepulture and burial-cavern is thus described by Hum-
boldt : — " The most remote part of the valley is covered
by a thick forest. In this shady and solitary spot, on the
declivity of a steep mountain, the cavern of Ataruipe opens
itself. It is less a cavern than a jutting rock, in which
the waters have scooped a vast hollow ; when, in the
ancient revolutions of our planet, they attained that
height. We soon reckoned in this tomb of a whole extinct
tribe, nearly six hundred skeletons, well preserved, and so
regularly placed that it would have been difficult to make
an error in their number. Every skeleton reposes in a sort
of basket made of the petioles of the palm-tree. These
baskets, which the natives call tnapires, have the form of a
square bag ; their sizes are proportioned to the age of the
dead ; there are some for infants cut off the moment of
their birth : we saw them from ten inches to three feet
long, the skeletons in them being bent together. They are
all ranged near each other, and are so entire that not a rib
or a phalanx is wanting. The bones have been prepared in
three different manners, either whitened in the air and
the sun, dyed red with arnotto, a colouring matter extracted
from the bixa orellana ; or, like real mummies, varnished
with odoriferous resins, and enveloped in leaves of the heli-
conea, or the plantain tree. The Indians related to us, that
the fresh corpse is placed in damp ground in order that the
flesh remaining on the bones may be scraped off with sharp
stones. Several hordes in Guyana still observe this custom.
ORINOKO TRIBES. 441
Earthen vases, half-baked, are found near the mapires, or
baskets : they appear to contain the bones of the same
family. The largest of these vases, or funeral urns, are
three feet high, and five feet and a half long. Their colour
is greenish grey, and their oval form is sufficiently pleasing
to the eye. The handles are made in the shape of cro-
codiles, or serpents ; the edge is bordered with meanders,
labyrinths, and real grecques^ in straight lines variously
combined."
The Saliva seems to have been a class whose area has
been one of a receding frontier. The Atures are extinct,
and the last words of the Ature language are said to have
been heard, not from the lips of a human remnant of the
nation, but from a parrot. In respect to their extension
eastward, Raleigh enumerates among the inhabitants of
Trinidad the Salivi, a nation dwelling on the Continent also,
and that to the south of the Quaquas.
Then as to the western area: — on the Orinoko, above
the mouth of the Meta, Humboldt often heard of the
Quaquas, and adds, that it is asserted that the missionary
Jesuits have found them as far as Popayan.
MAY PURE.
Divisions. — 1. Maypure Proper. 2. Cavri (Caveri, Cabre). 3. Pareni. 4.
Guipunavi (Poignavi). 4. Meppurys (?). 5. Avani. 6. Chirupa.
Area. — The banks of the rivers Orinoco (middle part), Amazons, and Negro.
Conterminous with the Caribs, Salivi, and other unplaced tribes.
The mission of Maypure is the centre of the language.
It is spoken also at the mission of Atures, by tribes other
than Maypures, i.e. by the Maco (Piaroa), who are Saliva,
and by the Guahivi, belonging to a third division of the
Orinoko Indians.
THE ACHAGUA.
Locality. — The river Casanare, a feeder of the river Meta.
442 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
The relation of the Achagua to the Maypure, is unde-
termined. That there are many words common to the two
tongues is certain. According, however, to Gumilla, this
is only from intercourse and intermixture. — Mlthridates.
Their habits, manners, and civilization are nearly those
of the Saliva, i.e. imperfectly agricultural.
THE YARURA.
Divisions. — 1. Yarura Proper. 2. BetoL 3. Situfa. 4. Airico. 5. Ele.
6. Quaquaro (?)
Area. — The water-system of the river Casanare.
Native name. — Yupuin.
THE OTTOMACAS.
Locality. — Middle Orinoco, at its junction with the river Sinaruco.
Dialects. — 1. Otomaco Proper. 2. Taparita.
The Ottomacas are that tribe of South American Indians
who have so often been described as The Dirt-eaters.
They fill their stomachs with an unctuous clay found in the
alluvium of their district ; and this, irrespective of the
plenty or scarcity of other provisions. The accurate che-
mical composition of this clay has yet to be ascertained.
The current statement that it is so full of organic matter
as to partake of the nature of animal or vegetable food,
is probably unfounded.
THE CHIRICOAS.
Divisions. — 1. The Guahivi. 2. The Chiricoas.
Locality. — Left bank of the Orinoco. South of the Saliva.
It is nearly certain that this list of families is anything
but exhaustive for the Middle and Upper Orinoco. Thus,
partly from the notices of the Mithridates, and partly from
the maps of Humboldt, we find the following additional
names of tribes :
Curacicanas. — River Ventuari.
Javaranas. — Ditto.
Daricavaris. — River Inirida ; cannibals.
THE GUARANI. 443
Pucherinams. — River Inirida ; cannibals.
Manitivitaris. — Ditto, ditto.
Equinabis. — Between the Rivers Negro and Orinoco.
Manivas. — Ibid.
Cherumchahena . — I bid .
Maquitares. — River A^entuari.
Aberianas. — Ibid.
Marepizanos. — River Negro.
GuareJcen. — Removed to the mission of Maypures, and
now speaking the Maypures language.
The Massanau, the Kaju-Kussianu, the Assawanu, the
Wagudu. — Described by the Arawaks to Quandt, as resid-
ing far in the interior on the Orinoco.
The Sagidaqueres. — Perhaps Chiricoas.
The Guaneros, and the Guama. — On the River Apure.
Fluviatile manners. Said to have descended the stream.
The two great stocks of the eastern side of South Ame-
rica may now be considered the Guarani, the great family
of Brazil, and the Carib, the great family of Guiana — the
South American analogues of the Algonkin and Sioux
groups of the Northern continent.
THE GUARANI.
Synonyms. — Tupi, Brazilian, Guarani-Brazilian, Tupi-Guarani.
Area. — From the mouth of the river Plata, south-east, in 35° south latitude, to
theriverNapo, on the opposite side of the continent, in 3° south latitude,north-west,
in, or over, the Empire of Brazil, and in the Republics of Buenos Ayres (?), Entre
Rios, Corrientes, Monte Video, Paraguay (the chief locality of the true Guarani),
Bolivia (in the province of Santa Cruz), Guiana (?), Ecuador (?), Bolivia an
Venezuela.
Distribution. — Discontinuous.
Divisions. — A. Tupi-Guaranis —
1. Southern Guaranis. — In the southern provinces of Brazil, and in the Re-
publics of Buenos Ayres, Entre Rios, Corrientes, Monte Video and Paraguay.
a. The Pinares (or Pinaris). — South of the sources of the river Uraguay.
b. The Patos. — Fishermen on the Laguna de los Patos.
c. The Tapes (or Tapis). — Monte Video, and the Brazilian province of Rio
Grande del Sul.
444 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
d. The Gulcanans — In the Campos de Vaccaria of the last-named province.
e. The Biturunas= Blackfaces or Nightmen. — South of the river Curubita.
/. The Guaranis Proper. — Between the rivers Parana and Paraguay.
2. Tupis (Tupinambas) or Brazilian Guarani — Scattered along the coast of Bra-
zil from (there or thereabouts) 30° south latitude to the mouth of the Amazons.
a. The Tamoyas. — Formerly very numerous, on the bay of the Rio de Janeiro,
at present almost extinct.
b. The Tupinakis. — Formerly in Porto Seguro and the Comarca dos Ilheos,
now occupying villages in Belmonte, Camamu, Valency, &c.
c. The Tupinaes. — In Bahia.
d. The Tupinambases. — Ditto.
e. The Obacatuwaras =Good Woodsmen. — Islands of the river San Francisco.
f. T/te Pothcaras. — Parahyba and Maranham.
g. The Cahates. — Once numerous in Pernambuco, now either extinct or in-
corporate. Falling into sub-divisions, viz., ilve, Guanacds, the Yaguaranas, the
Teremembes, the Kitarioris, the Viatanis, the Cahy-cahys (?)
h. The Tupagaros, (or Tupiwaras). — Para and the northern parts of Ma-
ranham.
i. The Guajojaras. — Head- waters of the river Mearim.
j. The Manajos. — Ibid.
3. North-eastern Tupis. — In the Island of Marajo, and about the junction of
the rivers Amazons and Tocantins.
a. The Taramambases.
b. The NJienga-hibas, of Marajo Island.
c. The Pacajases.
d. The Apantos.
e. The Mamayamases.
f. TJie Anajases.
ff. The Cvuyanases, or Boatmen.
h. TJie Tocantinos.
i. The Cuchewaras (or Tochi).
j. The Cambocas (or Bocas).
k. The Cupewaras (?) (or Ant-Indians).
1. The Yuruunas (?).
4. The Guarani (or Tupi) of the river Tabajos. —
a. The Apiacases.
b. The Cahahivas.
5. Bolivian Tupi (or Guarani). — In the province of Santa Cruz de la Sierra,
and conterminous with the Indians of the Missions of Moxos and Chiquitos, by
which, as well as by the Indians of the Chaco, they are isolated from the other
Guaranis.
a. TJie Chiriguanos.
b. The Sirionos.
c. The Guarayos.
B. Omaguas —
1. Of the rivers Napo and Putumayo, speaking the Yete, the Putumayo, and
the Zeokeyo dialects of the Sucumbia language.
THE OMAGUAS. 445
2. Omaguas of the river Japura, or Omaguas Proper.
3. Omaguas to the west of the river Ucayale, and to the south of the river
Amazons, on the borders of Peru, speaking the Cocamello and Uebo dialects of
the Cocamo language.
The limits of the Omaguas are pre-eminently uncertain :
so that it is possible that in the foregoing notice I may, in
carrying them so far as the neighbourhood of Quito, have
gone too far west. On the other hand, good authorities
have even extended their geographical area further north,
and their ethnological affinities to the Achagua. That
they are really connected with the Guarani is a well sub-
stantiated doctrine ; at least such is the evidence of the
languages, although Vater objected to it.
Whether, however, the Guarani descended from the
Omaguas, of the north and west, or the Omaguas from
the Guarani of the south-east, is uncertain. There are facts
and opinions both ways.
Pre-eminently fluviatile (we can scarcely use the word
marine) in their habits, the Omaguas have been called the
Phffinicians of the western world ; a fact which, perhaps,
should be taken along with their distribution on the coast,
the Amazons, the Paraguay, and the Orinoco.
The Omaguas, and many others of the Guaranis, are
Flat-heads.
THE CARIES.
Area, — From the mouth of the Amazons to parts about the Lake Maracaybo ;
perhaps farther. The territories and republics of Portuguese, French, Dutch,
British and Spanish Guiana, Venezuela. The Lesser Antilles.
Divisions. — 1. Caribeans Proper. 2. Tamanaks. 3. Arawaks.
Subdivisions of unascertained value. — Proceeding from south to north or north-
west—
1. Caribs of Portuguese Guiana, between the rivers Amazons and Oyopok.
2. Galibi of French Guiana. Language more Carib than either Tamanak or
Arawak.
3. Arawaks. — Dutch and British Guiana.
4. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, \5.—Accaways, Waikas, Macusi, Zapa-
ras, Arecunas, Soerikong, Guinau, Wayamara, Makakwa (or Maojvtyan),
Woyau-ai, Maonykong, Pianoghotto, Drio, Zaramata, Tiveriyhotto.
446 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
] 6. Guayanos. — Spanish Guiana.
17. Yam. — Aborigines of Trinidad.
18. Pariagotos. — On the Gulf of Para.
19. Cumanagotos. — Mission of Piritu, in Caraccas. Of this the following are
dialects — a. The Tomuzas. b. The Piritu. c. The Cocheyma. d. The Chaco-
patas. e. The Topocuares. This is probably an approach to the —
20. Ckayma. — The highlands which, in the eastern part of Cumana, form the
northern watershed of the Orinoco. Tamanak rather than Proper Carib. The
fixation of the Chaymas as Carib, is Humboldt's.
21. Palenca. — Province of Barcelona.
22. Guarive. — Ibid. Intermediate to the Carib Proper, and the Tamanak.
23. 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32.— The Pareche, Uocheari, Uaraca-
pacdlif UaramucurU) Paiure, Achericoto, Oje, ChiricJtiripi, Afacchtritari, Areveri-
ani. — Subsections of the Tamanak spoken to the south of the Orinoco.
33 — Caribs of the Lesser Antilles. — Extinct.
Like the Iroquois and Algonkins of North America, the
Caribs were one of the first tribes of South America,
which were known to Europeans ; so that it is they from
whom the earliest and most current notions of the inter-
tropical American were taken.
That they were the aborigines to the Lesser Antilles is
certain ; and it is nearly certain that, as a pure race, this
section of them is extinct ; since the so-called black Caribs
of St. Vincent, although partially descended from the
insular division of the class, are mixed with Negro blood,
and are not the aborigines of the island, but immigrants
from Barbadoes and elsewhere.
How far they extended further than the Lesser Antilles
is doubtful. Father Eaymond, who, in considering the sub-
ject, during the existence of the Caribs of the Islands, but
subsequent to the expulsion of the aborigines from Cuba,
Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and St. Domingo (i. e. early in the
seventeenth century), remarks that an unequivocal remnant
(the only one) of those Indians who escaped from the
massacres and cruelties of the Spaniards, the refugee
Indians of Cura9oa, had no Carib words in their language.
Again, the same writer, on the authority of Mr. Brig-
THE CARIES. 447
stock, a gentleman well versed in the Floridian and Virgi-
nian languages, attributes to the whole stock a North
American origin; their progenitors, the Colfachi, having
availed themselves of a Mexican migration of the Appala-
chians to take possession of a portion of Florida. Thence,
after a time, a part was ejected, and so found its way to
both the Islands and the Southern Continent. Upon the
tradition itself I lay little stress. Upon the fact of certain
words being common to the Colfachi who remained in
Florida, and the true Caribs, I lay more. Probably, the
existence of certain points common to the two populations
originated the tradition — the connexion (if real) being
different from what is described in the legend.
It should be remembered that the series of islands from
Trinidad to Florida forms a second line of connexion be-
tween North and South America.
That a nation so widely spread as the Caribs should
have migrated from North America as a body of fugitives,
and that within the traditional epoch, is improbable, the
unlikelihood being increased by the number of dialects into
which the languages are divided. It is far more likely
that a part of them conquered their way from South to
North. On their own hemisphere they are preeminently
the people of an encroaching area, and the frontier-fights
between the Caribs and the Caveri of the Middle Orinoco
are the analogues of the wars of the Iroquois and Algonkius
in Pennsylvania.
In the ethnography of Polynesia certain peculiar customs
in respect to the language of caste and ceremony were
noted. The Carib has long been known to exhibit a
remarkable peculiarity in this respect. The current state-
ment is — that the women have one language and the men
another ; so that while the husband talks (say) French,
448 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
the wife answers in English. The real fact is less extraor-
dinary. Certain objects have two names ; one of which is
applied by males, the other by females only. Raymond
says that the latter terms are Arawak, and that the
Arawaks were the older inhabitants of the islands, the men
whereof were exterminated and the women adopted as
wives. No explanation is more probable than this, and it is
applicable in other parts of the world besides America.*
That many of the Carib tribes are flat-headed, and that
they are also cannibals, is well known. A nation of women,
however, forming a section of their population, has yet to
be discovered.
Necdum finitus Orestes. — Vast as is the area already
disposed of, the whole of South America has not yet been
exhausted. There are tracts which have still to be filled up.
I. The eastern slope of the Andes from about 17° south
latitude to the Equator. — It is only where the American
continent begins to contract in breadth (i. e. about 17°
south latitude), that the western limits of any of the tribes
already noticed, such as those of the Missions and the
Chaco, come in contact with the eastern Peruvians of the
Andes.
Beginning, then, with the parts north-east of Potosi, we
have between them and the parts east of Lima, as the
most southern tribes, between Cochabamba west, and
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, east —
THE YURACARES.
Conterminous with the Quichua Peruvians, the isolated Guarani (Chiri-
guanos and Sirionos), the Indians of the Mission of Chiquitos, and the Mocetenes.
From 17' to 16' south latitude.
Name. — Quichua. Yurak =.white-\-kari =. men.
Divisions. — 1. Solostos on the east. 2. Mansinos on the west. Other sec-
* Perhaps in such terms &&Xanthia—Scamander,Briareiis==.SEgcon, we have the
phenomenon of a second language.
CARIB TRIBES. 449
tions of them extinct, or incorporate, or else mentioned under different names —
Oromos, Conis, Cuchis, En6t£s,
Synonym. — For the Solostos, Mages — so called by the people of Santa-Cruz.
Religion. — 1. Of the Mansinos, Paganism. 2. Of the Solostos, Christianity.
Numbers in 1832. 1. Mansinos, 1000. 2. Solostos, 337.
MOCETENES.
Synonyms. — Manaqui€s ; so-called by the Yuracares. Cliunchos, by the Boli-
vian-Spaniards. Also, Maffdalenos, Chimanisas (or Chimanis), Muchanis, Tucupi.
Locality. — North of Cochabamba, on the head-waters of the river Beni. From
16' to 15' south latitude.
Conterminous with the Aymaras, Quichuas, Moxos Indians, Yuracares, and
Apolistas.
Religion and numbers.— 1. Christian, about 1600. 2. Pagan, about 800.
Language — Different (according to D'Orbigny) from the Yuracares.
TACANA.
Synonyms or partial terms. — Atenianos, Isiamas, Cavinas, Toromonas. — This
last is the name of the still savage tribes speaking the Tacana, which is the name
of a language rather than of a section of population.
Conterminous with the Aymaras, Mocetenes, Apolistas, Maropas, and (to the
north), the Huacanahuas and Suriguas.
Numbers. — Of the Mission of Aten 2,033
Tsiamas 1,028
Cavinas 1,000
Tumapasa 1,170
San Jose" 73
Pagans Toromonas • 1,000
Total 6,304
Original locality. — The head-waters of the Beni, north of the Tacanas.
Present locality. — The Mission de Reyes, of Moxos.
Language.— Not known from a vocabulary, but one which, to D'Orbigny, seemed
different from that of the MocetSne's.
APOLISTAS.
Present locality.— Apolobamba, on the river Apolo. Probably the original
locality also.
Numbers and religion. — In 1832, A.D., 3,616 Christians, i.e. 841 in Santa
Cruz, and 2,775 in Apolobamba.
The Yuracares, Moce'tenes, Tacana, Apolista and
Maropa sections form a division of the South American
population characterised by the remarkable fairness of its
G G
450 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
complexion, a fact indicated by the very term Yuracares
= white men. D'Orbigny, who raises the section to a class
under the name ofAntisien, and who is the writer to whom
we owe nearly all our information, makes this lightness of
colour coincide with the woody and shady character of the
quarters inhabited; the Maropas, who are in the most
exposed countries, being also the darkest in hue.
Northwards we have only the names of tribes to fill up
the two following vast geographical gaps, i. e.
A. The water-system of the Upper Ucayale.
B. The Eastern Andes north of the Amazons. They are
taken from the Mithridates, the oldest authorities on these
points being the best.
A. 1. The Heresilocana, allied to the Orocotana and
Rocotane (?).
2. The Chiriba, allied to the Chomana.
3. The tribes speaking the Caniscana language.
4. The Mopeziana.
5. The Icabizizi.
6. 7, 8, 9. The Caisina, Capingel, Caliciono, and Ucoino.
10. The Cavina, who built stone houses.
11. The Cotta, makers of roads.
1 2. The Carapuchos, whose language was so guttural as
to be the bark of a dog rather than the speech of a man.
Cannibals ; as were also —
] 3. The Casibos.
14. The Sipibos.
15, 16, 17, 18, 19. The Panos, the Piri, the Canibi,
the Campa, the Comavi, who, in A.D. 1695, threw off the
control of the Missionaries.
20. The ChipeoS) part of the Panos.
21, 22, 23, 24. The Cunivos, the Mananahuas, the
Mochovos, the Bemos.
UNITY OR NON-UNITY OF AMERICANS. 451
25. The Chamicunos, speaking a language allied to that
of the Chipeos and Panos.
B. 1. The Aguanos.
2. The Jfeberos, of which the a, Cutinanas ; i, the
Paranapuras ; c, the Chaylitas ; d, the Muniches (?), are
sections.
3. The Andoas.
4. The Ayacore. — Language peculiar.
5. The Parana. — Ditto.
6. The Encapelladas. — This is a Spanish name, applied
as a collective term to the following tribes of the Upper
Napo. — a, the Abicheres ; 5, the Angateres ; c, the Cun-
chies ; d, the Ycahuates ; e, the Payaguas.
The most eastern of these are probably Omagua.
II. French Guiana. — For French Guiana I find the
following tribes, or nations, in the Atlas Ethnologique, being
unable to give them any ethnological position : —
1 . Rocouyenne. — Nearly annihilated by —
2. The Oampi — The most numerous and powerful nation
of French Guiana, occupants of the Upper Oyapok.
3. Emerillons. — A numerous and independent nation of
French Guiana, on the River Inini. Stature tall ; language
not known through any vocabulary. — Balbi : Atlas Ethno-
logique, xxix.
*****
The details of the ethnology of America having been
thus imperfectly exhibited, the first of the two questions
indicated in pp. 351, 352, still stands over for considera-
tion.
A. The unity (or non-unity) of the American popula-
tions one amongst another, and —
B. The (unity or non-unity) of the American populations
as compared with those of the Old World.
452 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
In p. 351, it is stated that the two (three ?) sections
of the American aborigines which interfere with the
belief that the American stock is fundamentally one,
are —
I. The Eskimo.
II. The Peruvians (and Mexicans).
I. Taking the Eskimo first, the evidence in favour of
their isolation is, physical and moral.
The latter I think is worth little except in the way of
cumulative evidence, i.e. when taken along with other
facts of a more definite and tangible sort. The Eskimo
civilization (such as it is) is different from that of the
other Americans ; and how could it be otherwise when we
consider their Arctic habitat, their piscatory habits, and the
differences of their Fauna and Flora ? It is not lower ; i. e.
not lower than that of the ruder Indians ; a point well
illustrated in Dr. King's paper* on the Industrial Arts of
the Eskimo.
The physical difference is of more importance.
And, first as to stature. — Instead of being shorter, the
Eskimo are, in reality, taller than half the tribes of South
America.
Next, as to colour. — The Eskimo are not copper-coloured.
Neither are the Americans in general. It is only those
best known that are typical of the so-called Red race ;
there being but little of the copper tinge when we get
beyond the Algonkins and Iroquois.
Lastly, as to the conformation of the skull, a point
where (with great deference) I differ from the author of
the excellent Crania Americana. — The Americans are said
to be JraHy-kephalic, the Eskimo efofo'Mo-kephalic. The
American skull is of smaller, the Eskimo of larger dimen-
* Ethnological Transactions, Vol. I.
UNITY OR NON-UNITY OF AMERICANS. 4-53
sions. I make no comment on the second of these opinions.
In respect to the first, I submit to the reader the following
extracts from Dr. Morton's own valuable tables, premising
that, as a general rule, the difference between the occipito-
frontal and parietal diameters of the Eskimo is more than
seven inches and a fraction as compared with five inches
and a fraction, and that of the other Indians less than seven
and a fraction, as compared with five and a fraction. Now,
the following extract from Dr. Morton's tables shows the
approach to the dolikhokephalic character on the part of
twenty-four American specimens —
Long. diam. Parietal diam.
*E. 1. Eskimo 57 5'4
2. " 7-3 5-5
3. " 7'5 5-1
4. Eskimo 67 5'
A. 5. Qjibbwa 7'3 5'8
6. „ 7'2 5-5
7. Potowatomi 7'8 57
8. Sauk 7'5 5-9
9. Missisaurji 7* • • • •*>' -
1 0. Lenape, 7* 5'5
11. „ 7'8 5-4
12. Mania (?) 7' 5'1
1 3. Quinnipeak (?) 7" 57
I. 14. Iroquois 7'5 5'5
15. , 7-1 5-4
16. „ M 5-5
17. Oneida 7'5 5'6
18. Cayuga 7'8 5'1
S. 19. Assineboin 7'6 5*8
20. Minetari 7'3 4'4
21. Mandan 7'1 5'4
22. „ 7- 5-3
C. 23. Choctah 7'2 5-
24. Seminole 7'1 5.6
25. , 7-3 5-9
26 7' 5-5
27. „ 7-3 5-6
28. 7- 5-9
*E.=Eskimo, A.=Algonkin, I. = Iroquois, S.=Sioux, C.=Cherokee.
454 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
The language, as before stated, is admitted to be the
American, in respect to its grammatical structure, and can
be shown to be so in respect to its vocables.
II. The Peruvians. — Here the question is more com-
plex, the argument varying with the extent we give to the
class represented by the Peruvians, and according to the
test we take, *. e. according as we separate them from the
other Americans on the score of a superior civilization,
or on the score of a different physical conformation.
a. When we separate the Peruvians from the other
Americans, on the score of a superior civilization, we gene-
rally take something more than the Proper Peruvians, and
include the Mexicans in the same category.
I do not trouble the reader with telling him what the
Peruvio-Mexican (or Mexico-Peruvian) civilization was ;
the excellent historical works of Prescott show this. I
only indicate two points : —
1. The probability of its being over- valued.
2. The fact of its superiority being a matter of degree
rather than kind.
Phraseology misleads us. We find certain phsenomena
in the social and political constitution both of Mexico and
Peru which put us in mind of certain European customs,
e.g. (two amongst many) the dependence of subordinate
chiefs on a superior one, and the use of certain ceremo-
nies previous to the warrior's first achievements in war.
How easy is it, in such cases, to take a false impression if
we illustrate the habits in question by comparisons drawn
from European feudalism and chivalry, instead of from
their truer analogues, the probationary tortures of tribes
like the Mandans, and the constitution of such an empire
as Powhattans in Virginia.
Again, phrases, like picture-writing, are only safe so long
UNITY OR NON-UNITY OF AMERICANS. 455
as we compare them with their real equivalents ; and these
are not the painted and sculptured walls of Egypt, but the
rude hide of the Pawni, whereon he scratches or daubs a
sketch of his exploits.
More exceptionable still is the term hieroglyphics ;* of
which the following is said to be a specimen. The sign
denoting Cimatlan, the name of a place, was compounded
of the symbol of Cimatl, a root, and tlan, signifying near.
Surely this is no example of phonetic spelling. C-i-m-a-tl-
tl-a-n, consists of eight elementary articulate sounds. How
then can two signs spell it phonetically : eight are required
to do it properly ; and unless it can be shown that the
symbol r: cimatl be in the same category with the letter x
(#s), and that it is a compendium for two or more (in
this case eight) simple single signs, the phonetic character
either falls to the ground, or the term changes its meaning.
Again, the spelling is not even syllabic. Cim-atl-an, con-
sists of three syllables ; which have only two signs to ex-
press them.
The real spelling is neither more nor less than rhsemato-
graphic, with one sign for one word, and two signs for
two ; just as if in English we spelt the word representing
the idea of a shore by one combination of points and lines,
that of a ham by another, and that of the town Shore-ham
by a combination of the two. Now no one would say that
this spelt /Sh-o-re-h-a-m.
One more instance — since I am indicating rather than
exhausting lines of criticism — shall be taken from the ac-
count of a so-called remarkable phenomenon in the arith-
metic of the tribes akin to the Mexican.
Some of the rudest tribes of South America, like the
* Of course, I mean Phonetic hieroglyphics ; since it is only these that indicate a
higher civilization than picture-writing.
456 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
generality of the Australians, are unable to count beyond
five. The Mexicans, however, have a simple term for
twenty. Nay more, for 400 and 8000, they have simple
terms also, i.e. for the first and second powers of twenty ;
just as we have in the words hundred and thousand, simple
undecompounded names for the first and second powers
of ten. A great contrast this ! exhibiting multiplicational
as well as mere numerational arithmetic.
What else ? — there is a Notation as well, and certain
symbols stand for 20, 800, and 4000.
Gallatin observes, that the symbols thus standing for
these numbers also express words equivalent to company,
regiment, and army, in the military system, and, thence,
he argues that the vigentesimal system determined the
organisation of the legions of Montezuma. I do not say
that such was not the case. I believe, however, that it
is much more likely that the organisation of the army
determined the so-called vigentesimal numeration, and that,
just as the word for 2Q=man (i.e. 10 fingers and 10 toes),
so the word for 400 was the name of 20 companies of 20,
and that for 8,000 the name for 20 regiments of 400.
If this be true, so far from the Mexican multiplying 20
by 20, he might be unable to count to 45 ; having names
for the higher numbers furnished him by an accident, but
without terms for the intermediate ones.
As for the agricultural condition of the Mexicans, con-
trasted, as it may be, with the hunter-state of the Sioux
and others, it is no contrast, except in degree, with the habits
of the Diggers and other tribes of California and Oregon,
where game is scarce and esculent roots abundant ; and
whilst the archeeology of the Valley of the Mississippi
shows rudiments of their architecture, the more important
confederations, such as the Creek, are analogues of what
UNITY OR NON-UNITY OF AMERICANS. 457
may be somewhat grandiloquently called their imperial
organisation.
Then as to the Casas Grandes, surely these show
Mexican architecture beyond the area of Mexico (i. e. Astek
Mexico). But what if they also show the extent to which
the Mexican civilisation extended itself? In such a case
they prove nothing as to the independent civilisation al
development of the nation on the area where they occur.
But is this the only inference that they suggest ? No. It
is not even the most legitimate one. Casas Grandes, in
localities a thousand miles from Mexico, indicate, not that
the Mexican influence was spread so far beyond the Valley
of Mexico, but that more nations than one built with stone
and brick. To assume colonisation from community of
characteristics is inadmissible.
I have now only to add, that if this sort of criticism —
such as it is — has not been shown to be applicable to the
Mexican astronomy and the Mexican chronology, it is only
because the magnitude of the subject excludes it from the
present volume.
b. When we separate the Peruvians from the rest of the
Americans, on the score of a different physical conformation,
we take something less than the whole nation, *'. e. only a
particular section of it. How this happens is explained
by the following statements : —
1. In the parts about the Lake Titicaca, within the
Aymara area, are found, along with vast stone ruins and
other remarkable relics of an early age, several burial
places of the ancient inhabitants ; the skulls of which are
flattened in front, behind, or laterally, as the case may be,
with the suture of the cranium obliterated.
2. The present inhabitants of this area are not in the
habit of flattening the skull.
3. The old race of the flattened skulls is the race which
458 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
appears to have been the executors of the oldest portion of
the Peruvian architectural antiquities, and as such, civilised
or semi-civilised.
4. The present Aymaras exhibit no traces of being the
descendants of a people more civilised than themselves.
These facts are generally admitted. It is also, perhaps,
as generally admitted that, taken by themselves, they are
not sufficient to disconnect what may be called the old
Peruvians of Titicaca, from the modern Aymaras ; since
civilisation may become retrograde, and the habit of flatten-
ing skulls, like any other habit, may be abandoned.
But what if the flatness of the old Titicacan skulls be
not artificial, but natural ? In this case the Aymaras are
anything but the descendants of the civilised flat-head
ancestors in question, and the ancient stock itself is extinct
— extinct without congeners, and without posterity.
This is no more than what follows from the position
that the cranial depression is natural. On the other hand,
if artificial, it falls to the ground.
Now, notwithstanding the very high authorities on the
other side, I am not prepared to admit the necessity of a
skull having been flattened in utero and in the way of
normal development, simply and solely because the traces
of artificial manipulation are not discoverable. All that
any facts of the kind prove, is that Art can imitate Nature
most skilfully.
The conclusive proof that the old Titicacans were natu-
rally flat-headed would be the not impossible discovery of
a mummied foetus, with a facial angle preternaturally
acute. Such, however, has yet to be discovered. Till then
the Aymaras, who can be proved by historical evidence
to have once flattened the forehead, must pass for the
descendants of the Titicacans.
CLASSIFICATION OF INDIANS. 459
What breaks down the distinctions between the Peruvian
and Eskimo, breaks down cl fortiori all those lesser ones
by which the other members of the American population
have been separated from each other. Still, as a sample of
arrangement, and as a practical exhibition of the differences
in physical conformation which are found within the
limits of South America, I conclude the section upon the
American Mongolidse with a view of D^Orbigny's classifi-
cation of the Indians between the Isthmus of Darien and
Cape Horn ; at the same time referring the reader to his
valuable monograph (ISHomme Americairi).
SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS.
Colour, yellow, brown, or copper-red ; height, variable ;
hair, thick, coarse, black, smooth, and long ; beard, thin,
coarse, black, never wavy, late in making its appearance ;
chin, short ; eyes, small, deep-set ; jaws, prominent ; teeth,
nearly vertical ; eyebrows, prominent.
1. Primary divisions, or races (so-catted) —
A. Ando- Peruvian. — Colour, olive-brown ; stature, low ;
forehead, either depressed, or but slightly vaulted ; eyes,
horizontal, never brides at their outer angle.
B. Pampa. — Stature, often considerable ; forehead,
vaulted ; eyes, sometimes brides at the outer angle.
C. Brazilio-Guarani. — Colour, yellowish ; forehead, not
retreating ; eyes, oblique.
A. Ando- Peruvians —
a. Peruvian branch. — Colour, deep olive-brown ; form,
massive ; trunk, long in proportion to the limbs ; forehead,
retreating ; nose, aquiline ; mouth, large ; physiognomy,
sombre. — Aymara and Quichua Peruvians.
b. Antisian branch. — Colour, varying from a deep olive
to nearly white ; form, not massive ; forehead, not retreat-
460 AMERICAN MONGOLIA.
ing ; physiognomy, lively, mild. — Yuracares, Mocetenes,
Tacanas, Maropas, and Apolistas.
c. Araucanian branch. — Colour, light olive; form, massive ;
trunk, somewhat disproportionately long; face, nearly circu-
lar ; nose, short and flat ; lips, thin ; physiognomy, sombre,
cold. — Indians of Chili and the Chonos Archipelago. The
Fuegians.
B. Pampas —
a. Pampa branch. — Colour, deep olive-brown, or marron;
form, Herculean ; forehead, vaulted ; face, large, flat, oblong ;
nose, short ; nostrils, large ; mouth, wide ; lips, large ; eyes,
horizontal ; physiognomy, cold, often savage. — Indians of
the Chaco and Patagonia.
b. Chiquito branch. — Colour, light olive ; form, moderately
robust ; mouth, moderate ; lips, thin ; features, delicate ;
physiognomy, lively. — Indians of the Mission of Chiquitos.
c. Moxos branch. — Form, robust ; lips, thickish ; eyes, not
brides ; physiognomy, mild. — The Indians of the Mission
of Moxos.
C. Brazilio - Guarani. — A simple branch. — Colour,
yellowish, with a slight tinge of red ; form, massive ;
height, moderate ; face, circular ; nose, short and straight ;
nostrils, narrow ; mouth, moderate ; lips, thin ; eyes, oblique ;
eyebrows, prominent ; features, delicate (effemines) ; physiog-
nomy mild. — Guarani, Caribs (?), and ^11 the unplaced
tribes of Paraguay, Brazil, the Guianas, and Venezuela (?).
G.
INDIAN MONGOLID^E.
THE present notice of the Mongolidse of Hindostan
will contain little beyond an enumeration of their chief di-
visions. The further questions — too numerous, even in
their proper place, to be considered in detail — will be
found in the ethnography of the lapetidse.
THE INDIAN STOCK.
Area. — Hindostan, Cashmere, Ceylon, the Maldives and Laccadives, part of
Beloochistan.
Conterminous with the lapetidae (?) of Beloochistan and Cabul, the Seriform
tribes of Little Tibet and the Sub-Himalayan countries of Bisahur, Nepaul, Sik-
kim, the Koch and Bodo country, the Garo country, Assam, and Aracan.
Political relations. — Chiefly either English or Independent. Partially French,
Dutch, Danish, and Portuguese.
Religions. — Brahminism, Buddism, with a variety of eclectic and intermedi-
ate creeds, Parsi fireworship, Mahometanism, with creeds intermediate to it and
Brahminism or Buddhism, Paganism, fragments or rudiments of Judaism and
Christianity.
Physical condition of country. — Chiefly inter-tropical, with a. Fluviatile alluvia
(deltas of the Indus and Ganges), b. Mountain and forest ranges (the Ghauts,
&c.). c. Sandy steppes (Ajmeer and the Punjaub). d. Portions of the Hima-
layan range (Cashmere).
Social and civilizational influences. — a. Ante- Mahometan ; Persian, and Greek.
6. Mahometan; Arabic, Persian, Turk, Mongol, c. Recent; Portuguese, Dutch,
French, Danish, British.
Physical conformation. — The two extreme forms. — a. Colour dark, or even
black, skin coarse, nasal profile flattened, cheek-bones prominent, lips thick, hair
coarse and generally straight, beard scanty, limbs oftener slender than massive,
stature oftener short than tall.
b. Colour brunette, sometimes of great clearness and delicacy, skin delicate,
nose aquiline, eyebrows arched and delicate, frontal profile perpendicular, cranium
dolikhokephalic, zygomatic development moderate, lips thin, stature sometimes tall,
limbs often powerful, the whole body being well-formed, even when not muscu-
lar, and the face oval, with regular and expressive features.
Habits. — Agricultural and industrial. More rarely pastoral. Sometimes
predatory.
462 INDIAN MONGOLIA.
Nutrition, — Varied. Sometimes nearly wholly vegetable ; sometimes almost
exclusively animal.
Social constitution. — Castes ; the higher the caste, the more predominant the
second type of physical conformation.
Intermixture. — Arabs on the western, Malays, Indo-Chinese, on the eastern
coast. In earlier time, Turanian Turks, Mongols, Scythians (?), Persians.
Emigrant and Indians. — 1. The Gypsies. 2. Hindu traders in different parts
of Asia.
Frontier. — Partly encroaching on that of the Sub- Himalayan Seriform tribes
(i.e., in Kumaon, Gurhwhal, and Bisahur), partly receding, i.e. in Nepaul.
Antiquities. — Rock temples, tombs, columns, coins, inscriptions in the Pali.
Ancient literature in the Sanskrit language.
Epochs. — 1. Ante-historical Persian, i.e. the epoch of the introduction of the
languages represented by the Sanskrit, and the germs of the Brahminical system.
2. Macedonian, from the time of Alexander to the breaking-up of the Indo-Bac-
trian kingdom. 3. Mahometan. 4. European.
Alphabets. — 1. With the letters more square than round, manifestly derived
from the Sanskrit. 2. With the letters more round than square, derived from the
Sanskrit, but not so visibly as the former.
Divisions.— 1. The Tamul. 2. The Pulinda. 3. The Brahui. 4. The Indo-
Gangetic. 5. The Purbutti. 6. The Cashmirian. 7. The Cingalese. 8. The
Maldivian.
THE TAMUL.
Area. — Continuous. The Dekhan, from Cape Comorin to an irregular line
from Goa, west, to Chicacole, east.
Physical appearance. — Chiefly referable to the first type. Complexion oftener
a black than a clear brunette ; the latter, however, the case with certain hill-
tribes (the Tudahs of the Nilgherries). A high stature and aquiline nose rarer
than with Indo-Gangetic tribes. Lips often thick. Skull probably more dolikho-
kephalic than brakhykephalic. Maxillary profile often prognathic. The general
physiognomy exhibiting many points common to the African.
Religion. — Paganism, and in the cases of Brahminism, with a considerable
amount of the original Paganism intermixed.
Language. — Containing Sanskrit words in proportion to the wow- Pagan charac-
ter of the tribe by which it is spoken ; in no case, however, are they so nume-
rous as to prevent the original wow-Sanskritic character of the language from
being admitted.
Alphabets. — Of the second class.
Quasi-Pulinda* sections of the population. — Tudahs, Buddugurs, Erulars, Curum-
bars, Cohatars.
Languages. — a. The Tamul Proper. — Falling into two varieties, a. The
High Tamul or Literary Dialect, and, b. The Low Tamul.
Spoken. From the parts about Pulicat to Cape Comorin, and as far west as
Coimbatoor, the south portion of Mysore.
* For the meaning of this term, see the notice of India under the head of the
lapetidte.
THE PULINDAS. 463
Conterminous with the Telinga (Teluga), Kanara, and Malayalam.
b. Tbelinga (Telugu). a. High. b. Low.
Spoken, immediately to the north of the Tamul from Pulicatto about 18° north
latitude on the coast, and as far inland as Bangalore south, and the head-waters
of the river Tapti, north.
Conterminous with the Udiya, the Mahratta, certain Pulinda dialects (?), and
the Kanara.
c. Kanara. — a. High. b. Low.
Central part of the Deccan from Beder, north, to the lower- third of Mysore,
south.
Conterminous with the Mahratta, Telinga, certain Pulinda dialects, the Udiya,
the Telugu, the Kanarese, and the Tamul.
d. Tulava. — A dialect of the Kanarese. Spoken on the western coast between
Goa and Mangalore, i.e. chiefly in the province of Kanara.
e. Malayalam. — South-west coast, from the limits of the Kanara to Cape
Comorin.
/. Coorgi. — Spoken in Coorg. Unwritten.
g. Tudah. — Mountaineers of the Nilgherri Hills. Unwritten.
The remarkable custom of polyandria,* which has been
noticed as one of the characters of the Seriform Tibetans,
reappears among the Tamuls of Malabar. " The marriages
of the Nayrs" (the caste next in dignity to the Brah-
mins), " so termed, are contracted when they are ten years
of age ; but the husband never lives with his wife, who
remains in the home of her mother or brother, and is at
liberty to choose any lover of a rank equal to her own.
Her children are not considered as her husband's, nor do
they inherit from him. Every man looks upon his sis-
ter's children, who alone are connected with him by ties
of blood, as his heirs." — Prichard, iv. 161.
THE PULINDAS.
Area. — Irregular, and in the present state of our knowledge, discontinuous.
Nearly encompassed by that of the Indo-Gangetic Indians. Chiefly mountain-
ranges.
Physical appearance. — Exclusively of the first type, approaching by an in-
creased zygomatic development, with the northern tribes, that of the Seriform
Mongolidse.
Religion. — Absolute Paganism, or Paganism with the minimum amount of
Brahminical influences.
* See p. 20.
464 INDIAN MONGOLID^!.
Languages or dialects. — Numerous. AH unwritten, and but partially known.
Even when mutually unintelligible, evidently connected with each other. Evi-
dently, also, connected with the Tamuls. Proportion of Sanskrit at the
minimum.
Vocabularies. — 1. Kol. 2. Larka-Kol. 3. Sontal. 4. Soar. 5. Bhumij.
6. Mandala. 7. Rajmahal. 8. Goandi.
Divisions. — A. Northern Pulindas. B. Eastern Pulindas. c. Central Pn-
lindas.
Distribution. — A. The Ganges on the confines of Bahar and Bengal, in the
mountain-range between Baghulpur and Rajmahal.
B. Orissa, the Northern Circars, and the Eastern part of Gundwana — Kols,
Khonds, and Soars.
0. Western Gundwana — Goands.
RAJMAHALI.
Locality. — Mountains in the neighbourhood of Rajmahal, on the confines of
Orissa and Bengal.
Physical appearance. — Average height about five feet three inches. "Aflat
nose seems the characteristic feature, but it is not so flat as that of the Cafirs of
Africa, nor are their lips so thick, though generally thicker than the inhabitants
of the plain." " Fairer than the Bengalese ; have broad faces, small eyes, and
flattish or rather turned-up noses ; but the Malay, or Chinese character of their
features, from whom they are said to be descended, is lost in a great degree on
closer inspection." — Asiatic Researches.
Pantheon. — Bedo Gossaik, Pow Gossaik, Davary Gossaik, Kali Gossaik, &c.
The tables of Hodgson show the affinity of the Raj-
mahali with the Kol, Bhumij, and the true Khond dia-
lects of Orissa ; as well as with the Goandi of Central
India.
THE BRAHUI.
Locality. — Beloochistan.
Conterminous with the Indians of Scinde and the Balooches (Biluchi) of
Persia.
That the Brahui numerals were liker those of Southern
India than any others, is indicated by Lassen. That
the language, in general, is Tamul, may be seen by a com-
parison of the vocabularies at large. To this fact the Brahui
locality, so far west and north, gives great importance. The
date, however, of their occupancy still remains unsettled.
They may be recent settlers, or they may be aborigines, for
anything known from history.
INDO-GANGETIC INDIANS. 465
THE INDO-GANGETIC INDIANS.
Area. — The systems of the Indus, and of the Ganges, Northern India. Con-
tinuous, but not uninterrupted; Pulinda populations being interspersed.
Physical appearance. — Often of the second type, and almost exclusively sup-
plying the standard specimens of it.
Religion. — Brahminism, with a minimum amount of Paganism, Buddhism,
Mahometanism. Sects, and intermediate creeds. Parseeism.
Language. — Non-Sanskritic in respect to its grammar, but so full of Sanskrit
vocables as to appear to be Sanskritic in origin,
Alphabets. — Of the first class.
Quasi-Pulinda populations.— a. Bhils. — In the wilder parts of the Vindhya
chain, and northern part of the western Ghauts.
Kulis.— South of the Bhils of the Ghauts.
Ramusis, Berdars. — The Ghauts of the Mahratta country, south of the Kulis.
Waralis and Katodis. — The wilder part of the Concan.
Languages.— 1. The Punjabi. — Conterminous with the Pushta of Affghanistan.
Literature recent, and of Hindu origin. The language of the Sikhs.
2. The Multani (Ooch). — Moultan ; no native literature.
3. The Gipsy. — Considered here because, although spoken by Indians who are
spread over Europe and Asia in general, rather than occupants of their natural
soil, the Multan is the Indian dialect to which it is most allied.
4. TheSindi. — Locality Sinde ; native literature little or none.
5. The Cuteh. — Probably a dialect of the Sindi, or else of —
6. The Gujerati. — Spoken in Gujerat. Native literature considerable, especi-
ally in respect to writings on the Parsi religion, of which Gujerat is the chief seat.
7. Bikhaneer (Vikaneer). — Rajasthana.
8. Odipoor.— Ditto.
9. Jeypoor. — Ditto.
10. Haroti. — Ditto.
11. Mewar. — Ditto.
12. Malwah. — The province so-called.
13. Bundelcund. — Country round Allahabad.
1 4. T/te Hindi. — Agra, Delhi, Oude, said to form the basis of the Sub-
Himalayan languages of Gurwhal, Sirmor, Kumaon, Bisahur, and Nepaul (?).
15. The Hindostani. — The Hindi proper converted by the introduction of
Persian and other words into a sort of lingua Franca.
16. The Maithili. — Spoken in South Bahnr.
17. The Bengali — Bengal.
18. The Assamese. — South-western part of Assam. Not the indigenous lan-
guage even to that district. Closely akin to the Bengali, of which it is, perhaps,
scarcely more than a dialect. This and the Bengali are conterminous with the
monosyllabic languages of the eastern Sub-Himalayan range, and the northern
portion of the Transgangetic Peninsula.
19. The Udiya. — Spoken in Cuttack and Orissa, as far south as 18° south
latitude (there or thereabouts) ; conterminous with the Bengali on the north.
The southern part of the Udiya area is irregularly bounded by portions of the
H H
466 INDIAN MONGOLIA.
country belonging to the first class, and its western by portions belonging to
the second class of Indian languages. As the Udiya is the most southern of the
Indian tongues belonging to the first division on the east, the —
20. Mahratta — Is the most southern on the west side of the Peninsula ;
bounded on the north by the Satpura Mountains, as far as Nagpore ; thence it
follows the course of the Nagpore river as far as its junction with the River
Wurda. Westward, the boundary between it and the Kanara (of the second
division) runs in an irregular line to Goa.
21. The Concani. — The strip of coast between the western Ghauts and the
sea between Bombay north, and Goa south. The district of Concana interrupting
the area of the Mahratta language, of which, perhaps, it is a dialect.
THE PURBUTTI (?) (MOUNTAINEERS).
Distribution. — The Sub-Himalayan range between Cashmir west, and the
River Teesta on the borders of Sikkim, east.
Area. — Kumaon, Gurwhal, Sirmor, part of Bisahur, Kulu, Chamba, Mandi,
Kangrah, Sukhet, Gulihur, Lahoul.
Physical appearance. — Hindu, modified by either Seriform intermixture or
influences of climate and altitude, or both.
Language. — Indo-Gangetic (?). In many cases a near approach to the Hindi ; in
others, probably, to the Punjabi and the Cashmirian.
Religion. — Chiefly Brahminic.
Divisions. — 1. Central Purbutti, or Khasiyas, in Gurwhal and Kumaon. 2.
Eastern Purbutti, from Nepaul to the Bodo frontier ; few and equivocal. 3.
Western Purbutti, in the parts between the Sutlege and Cashmir.
The character of these populations is, as stated above,
derived from either the influences of a mountain climate,
or from intermixture with Seriform Tibetans, or both.
Admitting the latter as an important element, it then
remains to be considered which of the two stocks is the
original one. Were the sub-Himalayan terraces originally
Seriform and afterwards peopled by Indians, or was the
population originally Pulinda, with which was subsequently
intermixed an Indo-Gangetic element. This is the uncer-
tainty which is denoted by the note of interrogation (?).
The question which it involves is by no means answered
by saying that the advent of the Brahminical Hindus of
Gurwhal, Sirmor, and Kumaon, as conquerors and
colonists, is a matter of history. Even, then, the nature
of the primitive race remains uncertain, i. e. it is an open
CASHMIRIAN. 467
question whether they were southern branches of the
Seriform stock, or northern Pulindas ; to say nothing about
the likelihood of their being intermediate to the two, or
different for different parts of the frontier.
That they were Seriform is the likelier doctrine of the
two. Still when we see, on the eastern side of the penin-
sula, how nearly the northern Pulindas of Rajmahal
approach the southern Seriform Garos, the difficulties of
the question become apparent.
The division of the Purbuttis into three groups is
natural. The Khasiyas, in Kumaon and Gurwhal, are
Indo-Gangetic Indians with the minimum of intermixture,
it being stated that in those two countries the aboriginal
impure race is extinct. On the east the extreme tribes
are likely to pass into the Bodo and Dhimal, on the
west into the Cashmirian type.
Again, the political relations of the eastern Purbutti are
with Nepaul. Those of the west with Cashmir and the
Punjab.
As to the real phaenomena of intermixture, they can only
be ascertained by a great increase of our information for
the parts in question ; since they are preeminently irregular
in their distribution, e.g. in Konawer, where the language
is Seriform, and the physiognomy Tibetan, the religion is an
imperfect Brahminism ; whilst in Jobool (and probably
elsewhere) we find by the side of a Hindu language and
physiognomy the custom of Polyandria, common to both
the Seriform Tibetans and the Tamul Malabars.
THE CASHMIRIAN (?).
Locality. — The Valley of Cashmir.
Language. — Indo- Gangetic.
Religion. — Mahometanism.
Physical appearance. — Referable to the second type, with clearness of com-
plexion and regularity of features at its maximum.
H H2
468 INDIAN MONGOLIA.
The note of interrogation denotes that the non-Indo-
Gangetic element of the Cashmirians is uncertain. It may
be Tamul ; it may be Seriform ; it may, on the other
hand, belong to the class represented by the Siaposh, and
other Quasi-Iranian, or Iranian, populations.
THE CINGALESE.
Locality. — Ceylon.
Language. — So full of Sanskrit vocables as to be classed with the Indo-Gange-
tic rather than with the Tamul tongues.
Religion. — Buddhism rather than Brahminism. Paganism.
Quasi-Pulinda population. — The Vaddahs.
THE MALDIVIAN (?).
Localities. — The Maldive and Laccadive islands.
The note of interrogation indicates that the Maldivians
are, perhaps, a subdivision of the Cingalese rather than a
separate substantive section of the Indian Mongolidse.
ATLANTID.E.
DIVISIONS.
A. — THE NEGRO ATLANTIC.*.
B. — THE KAFFRE ATLANTIC.*.
C. — THE HOTTENTOT ATLANTIC.*.
D. — THE NILOTIC ATLANTIC.*.
E. — AMAZIRG — ATLANTIC^ .
F. — THE ^EGYPTIAN ATLANTIC.*.
G. — THE SEMITIC ATLANTIC*.
IN respect to the general phsenomena of ethnological
distribution, we are now fully prepared for all that will be
presented in Africa. Large areas covered by single na-
tions, and small ones parcelled out amongst many, are
what we have already seen both in Asia and America.
The influences of a climate, at once tropical and conti-
nental, we shall find at their maximum ; those of extended
river-systems, and of mountain-ranges of the first magni-
tude, being less important. So also is the influence of the
ocean ; the insular system of Africa being the smallest in
the world, and the African sea-board being the one least
indented.
From the greater heat of climate, the steppes of High
Asia become sandy deserts in Africa : whilst the central
portion of the continent where the highest table-land is to
be expected, has yet to be explored.
Still the effect of a high level above the sea as mani-
fested (for instance) in Abyssinia, is to be taken into our
consideration of the physical conditions of Africa, i.e. as a
condition that, to a certain degree, in certain cases, conn-
470 ATLANTIC.
teracts the effects of excessive heat. On the other hand,
alluvial tracts, like the valleys of the Nile and Niger are
to be placed in the opposite scale, as assistant to the in-
fluences of a tropical and equatorial sun.
The region, however, of the Atlantidse is not Africa
alone ; it is Africa and something else — Africa plus the
African side of Asia, i.e. Syria and Arabia ; and here, in
attending to the African character of the latter of these
two areas, we must not lose sight of their physical relations
to the sterile table-land of Persia, and the true steppe-
country of Turkestan and Mongolia ; for such is the line of
continuity, in the way of steppes or desert, from Sahara
to Siberia.
Strictly adhering to the order of the supposed affinities,
it would be proper to take the Atlantidse of Asia first ;
in which case we should begin with the Arab and Jew,
and proceed with the Egyptian, the Berber, and Abyssi-
nian, when the arrangement would be strictly natural.
Nevertheless, a different and more artificial arrangement
will be adopted here, and the portion of the Atlantidse,
which will be dealt with first, will not be those who are
most closely allied to the Mongolidae or the lapetidse, but
those who least resemble either; in other words, those
who exhibit the Atlantidean type in its most remark-
able form. Hence, it is its typical character rather than
its affiliation and descent, which places the Negro division
at the head of the Atlantidse.
A.
NEGRO ATLANTIC}.
Physical conformation. — Skin black, unctuous, and soft. Hair woolly, lips
thick, maxillary profile prognathic, frontal retiring, nasal depressed.
Distribution. — Low-lands, sea-coasts, and the delta and courses of rivers, chiefly
of the rivers Senegal, Gambia, Niger, and Upper Nile. Nearly limited to the
Tropic of Cancer.
Area. — Western 'Africa from the Senegal to the Gaboon, Sudan. The alluvial
portions of the system of the Upper Nile.
Divisions. — 1. Western Negroes. 2. Central Negroes. 3. Eastern Negroes.
No fact is more necessary to be remembered than the
difference between the Negro and African ; a fact which is
well verified by reference to the map. Here the true
Negro area, the area occupied by men of the black skin,
thick lip, depressed nose, and woolly hair, is exceedingly
small ; as small in proportion to the rest of the continent
as the area of the district of the stunted Hyperboreans is
in Asia, or that of the Laps in Europe. Without going
so far as to maintain that a dark complexion is the
exception rather than the rule in Africa, it may safely be
said that the hue of the Arab, the Indian, and the Austra-
lian is the prevalent colour. To realize this we may ask,
what are the true Negro districts of Africa ? and what those
other than Negro ? To the latter belong the valleys of the
Senegal, the Gambia, the Niger, and the intermediate
rivers of the coast, parts of Sudania, and parts about Sen-
naar, Kordofan, and Darfur ; to the former, the whole coast
of the Mediterranean, the Desert, the whole of the Kaffre
and Hottentot areas south of the line, Abyssinia, and the
middle and lower Nile. This leaves but little for the
472 NEGRO ATLANTIC.
typical Negroes. Such, however, as it is, it will be dealt
with — taking the Senegal as a starting-point.
Again, subtypical deviations from the true Negro type
will be found within the group in question ; since the
Sudanian Blacks have the characters of their class in a
less degree than the more extreme Negroes of the Niger
and the Gambia.
Lastly ; the class in question is not strictly ethnological,
and that for the following reasons : — It is based upon
elements other than those of affiliation and descent. Thus
in respect to descent, the Negro of Sennaar has his
closest relations in the way of language, manners, and
blood, with the Africans of Kordofan, Abyssinia, and the
parts about his own country. Not so, however, his phy-
sical conformation. These are with the Africans of Sene-
gambia and Guinea ; a fact brought about by the common
conditions of heat, moisture, and a low sea-level ; condi-
tions, however, which render the group artificial and
provisional rather than natural and permanent. The same
would be the case if we threw all the mountaineers of
Europe in one and the same class, irrespective of their real
ethnological differences, simply on the ground of their all
exhibiting certain common phaenomena of colour, stature,
and habits.
I repeat the statement, therefore, that the class of the
Negro Atlantidse is only partially an ethnological one.
The chief area of the Negro is Western Africa, and
the point at which the notice of the Negro group most
conveniently begins is the mouth of the Senegal, the most
northern locality of the Western Negro Atlantidee,
WESTERN NEGRO ATLANTID^E.
Area. — The Lower Senegal and Gambia, the coast as far as the Kong Moun-
tains, the Lower Niger, and the coast south of that river.
WESTERN NEGRO ATLANTIC. 47.3
Chief divisions.— I. The Woloffs. 2. The Sereres. 3. The Serawolli. 4. The
Mandingo. 5. The Sapi-Felup. 6. The Ibo-Ashanti.
Of these the most northern are —
THE WOLOFF (IOLOF, JOLOFF, OUOLOFF).
Locality. — The Lower Senegal, i.e. Cayor on its north, and the coast as far as
Cape Verde on its south bank. Conterminous with the Fulahs, Sereres, Sera-
wolli, Mandigos, Berbers, and Moors of the Western Sahara.
Religion. — Feticism.
Physical conformation. — Tall, well-made Negroes, with the nasal profile less
depressed, and the lips less prominent than is the case with the more typical
tribes.
THE SERERES.
Locality. — Cape Verde, conterminous with and surrounded by the Woloffs.
The Sereres are considered (and that upon fair grounds)
to have been the original inhabitants of a great part of the
Woloff country. Consequently, they are tribes of a re-
ceding area.
The affinities of the language are problematical ; being
with the WolofF and the Fulah almost equally. It has
also many words common to it and —
THE SERAWOLLI (SERACOLET).
Locality. — Senegambia in the kingdoms of Galam, Kaarta, in parts of the
Bambarra country, and in parts of Ludamar, north of the Senegal.
The affinities of the Serawolli language are, perhaps,
most with the Sereres, and, after that, with the Man-
dingo.
THE MANDINGO.
Area. — North and south (south-east). — From the parts about Cape Verde to
Liberia ; with an extension, inland, beyond Sego and the Kong Mountains.
Conterminous with the Woloff, Fulah, Sungai, Howssa, Grebo, and Fanti areas.
Divisions. — 1. Mandingo Proper. 2. Mandingos of Bambouk. 3. Bambar-
rans. 4. Yallonkas. 5. Susu. 6. Bullom. 7. Timmani. 8. Kossa. (?) 9.
Pessa. 10,'Vei. 11. Mendi. 12. Kissi. 13. Sokko. 14. Sulimana. 15.
Sangara. 16. Kooranko.
Vocabularies. — For the first thirteen of the preceding divisions.
Physical conformation. — Hair, woolly; nose, depressed; lips, thick; stature,
high ; skin, black, with a tinge of yellow ; sclerotica, tinged with yellow.
Reliffion. — Mahometanism and Paganism.
Alphabets.— 1 . The Arabic of the Maudingos Proper. 2. The Vei (syllabic).
474 NEGRO ATLANTIC.
This last deserves special notice. About the middle of
January, 1849, Lieutenant Forbes, Commander of H. M.S.
Bonetta, inquired of the missionaries of Sierra Leone,
whether they had heard of a written language amongst
the natives of those parts, since he himself possessed a
book in the language of the natives near Cape Mount.
The Rev. S. W. Koelle, a missionary of Sierra Leone,
undertook a personal investigation of the matter. He found
that it was not only composed within the memory of man,
but that the composer was alive ; a man of the Vei country,
named Doala Bukara. Doala Bukara, although an im-
perfect Mahometan, had seen Arabic books, and, though no
Christian, an English Bible. The fact of these being
written, haunted him in a dream, wherein he was shown
a series of letters adapted to his native tongue — the Vei.
THE SAPI-FELUPS. 475
Nevertheless, the real alphabet was a joint production
— i.e. of Doala and others ; since, in the morning, he
could not remember the signs shown him by night. There-
fore, he and his friends put their heads together, and
coined new ones. The king of the country made its
introduction a matter of state, and built a large house
in Dshondu, as a day-school. But a war with the Guru
people disturbed both the learners and teachers, so that
the latter removed to Bandakoro, where all grown-up
people, of both sexes, can now read and write.
The Vei alphabet is a syllabarium ; of which the pre-
ceding was a specimen.*
South of the Gambia, the Mandingo area, although ex-
tended so far in the interior, does not quite reach the
coast, so that the lower portions of the rivers Ca9amanca,
Cacheo, Nunez, &c., are occupied by tribes not as yet
distinctly recognised to be Mandingo. Neither are they
as yet considered as allied either to the Woloff, or to each
other. Speaking languages, mutually unintelligible, they
are typical Negroes of the rudest and savagest kind ; all
being pagans. At Sierra Leone, the Mandingo reappears
on the coast, i.e. amongst the Bullom and Timmani tribes.
SAPI-FELUPS.
Of these the most northern are —
THE FELUP.
Locality. — The forests and low-lands at the mouth of the Caqamanca.
Language. — With miscellaneous, but without special affinities.
THE PAPEL.
Locality. — River Cacheo, south of the Felups.
Language. — Said to be peculiar ; the only vocabulary of it, however, has been
lost.
* For the meaning see Note at the end of the Volume.
476 NEGRO ATLANTIC.
THE BISSAGO ISLANDERS.
Locality. — The Bissago Isles. Probably the same stock as the Papels.
THE BALANTES.
Locality. — Isle of Bassi and the opposite coast. South of the Papels.
Language. — Said to be peculiar, but not known from any vocabulary.
THE IOLAS.
THE BASARES.
Locality:— Between the Balantes and —
THE BAGNON.
Locality. — The river Cacheo.
THE NALOO.
Locality. — The Nunez.
THE SAPI.
Locality. — Sea-coast in the neighbourhood of the Nunez.
BAGOES.
Locality. — South of the Nalus, on the coast. Conterminous with the Susu
Bullom, and Timani Mandingos to which they perhaps belong.
A convenient transition is now made to the area of —
THE IBO-ASHANTL
Here come, first in order —
THE FANTI.
Area.— The Gold-Coast, and the Ashanti country. From the river Asinese,
west, to the river Volta, east. Inland extension uncertain. Continuous, but not
uninterrupted.
Conterminous with the Mandingo Susus, and the Whidahs of Dahomey.
Within the Fanti area are spoken several unclassed
tongues, i.e.
THE AKVAMBU (?)
THE ADAMPI (?)
and, more important than any, that of —
THE GHA.
Synonym. — Acra or Inkra.
Locality. — Cape Coast.
The Gha are Negroes in appearance ; speaking a Ian-
THE GHA. 477
guage unintelligible to the Fanti populations, but with
undoubted general and miscellaneous affinities. They have
the appearance of being derived from some country in the
interior of Africa, a fact which Mr. Hanson — himself a
native preacher, who has studied the ethnology of his
country with great zeal — thinks can be verified by the
comparison of an Acra vocabulary with one from the parts
near Timbuctu.
More important still, is the unequivocal occurrence of
numerous well-marked Jewish characters in their religious
and other ceremonies. A paper of Mr. Hanson's* on this
subject, leaves no doubt of the fact. The interpretation,
however, is more uncertain. The present writer believes
that such phaenomena, i.e. points of similarity with the
Semitic nations, is the rule rather than the exception
with the African tribes — Negro and wow-Negro ; a fact
which makes the Jews, Arabs, and Syrians, African,
rather than the Africans Semitic.
THE WHIDAH.
Area. — Kingdom of Dahomey. From the river Volta to the river Lagos.
Physical conformation. — Typically Negro.
Religion. — Feticistn in its lowest form.
THE MAHA.
Locality. — North of Dahomey, at the foot and on the sides of the Kong Moun-
tains.
THE BENIN TRIBES.
Locality. — The sea-coast on the Bight of Benin. Conterminous with the
Whidah and Yarriba.
The peculiar distribution of the Mandingos must now
be considered, along with the configuration of the Guinea
coast, and, the imperfectly-known range of highlands, which,
at irregular distances from the ocean, runs nearly parallel
* Read before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at Swan-
sea, in 1848.
478 NEGRO ATLANTIC.
with it ; this range of highlands being the assumed water-
sheds of the following rivers between Sierra Leone and
the western frontier of the Fanti country — the rivers
Jong, Gallinas, Cape Mount, St. Paul's, St. John's, Ces-
tos, Lagos, Negros, Costa. All these are inconsiderable,
indicating that the elevations in which they rise are near
the coast. On the other hand, in Ashanti and Dahomey,
the rivers are of considerable magnitude, and indicate that
the mountain range in which they rise (the Kong moun-
tains) is far inland.
Now the low coast is the area of the following sections
of a typically Negro population.
THE GREBO.
Synonym. — Cru, or Cruman.
Locality. — The Grain Coast.
Conterminous with the Vei, and other South- Mandingo dialects, north ; with
the Avekvom, south.
Religion. — Paganism.
Physical conformation. — Typically Negro.
I am far from being sure that the Grebo is not a sec-
tion of the Mandingo class.
THE AVEKVOM.
Synonym. — Quaqua.
Locality. — Ivory Coast.
Conterminous with the Grebo tribes, west, the Fantf, east, and probably, certain
Mandingo tribes of the Sokko section, inland.
Dialects. — 1. Frisco. 2. Bassam. 3. Asini. 4. Apollonia.*
Religion and appearance. — Pagan Negroes.
We now pass over the Fanti, Whidah, and Benin areas
(already considered) to the typical Negroes of the Delta of
the Niger.
BONNY.
Locality. — The river Bonny or New Calabar.
Language. — Unintelligible to the natives of —
OLD CALABAR.
Locality. — The Old Calabar river.
* American Journal of Oriental Literature.
CENTRAL NEGRO ATLANTIC. 479
Language. — Different from —
THE IBO.
Area. — The Lower Niger, nearly as far as Funda.
Conterminous with the Whidah (?), Benin (?), Bonny, Old Calabar, Bimbia (?),
Yarriba, and Tapua tribes.
ADI YAH.
Locality. — Fernando Po.
Language. — Not identical with any tongue of the Continent ; though with mis-
cellaneous affinities.
THE BIMBIA.
Locality. — The Lower Cameroons.
In the Bimbia country the low coast is at its minimum
breadth, the foot of the Cameroons Mountain nearly reach-
ing the sea.
CENTRAL NEGRO ATLANTID^l.
By following the course of the Niger, we are again brought
in contact with the Mandingo area, i.e. with the northern
portion of it. Hence, the populations which will now be
noticed encompass and surround the Mandingo nations,
much as the Mandingo nations encompassed and surrounded
the Grebo and Avekvom tribes.
THE YARRIBA.
Locality. — The right and left (?) bank (banks) of the Niger to the back of the
Ibo and Benin countries.
Area. — Borgho, Wawa, Boussa, Yaouri.
Keligion. — Paganism.
Physical conformation. — Sub-typical Negroes.
Habits. — Tattooed.
THE TAPUA.
Synonym. — Nyffe.
Locality. — The country between the rivers Niger, Makumnec, and Coodoonia.
Conterminous with the Ibo (south), the Yarriba (south-west), the Fellatah
country (east and north-west), the Haussa (?) country, north.
Religion. — Paganism. Nearly that of Yarriba.
Physical conformation. — Sub- typical Negroes ; with better shapes and clearer
skins than even the Yarribians.
HAUSSA (HOWSSA).
Area. — Irregular, being deeply indented by that of the Fellatahs.
Conterminous with the Tapua (?), Yarriba, Fellatahs, Bornui, the Berber
Tuaricks.
480 NEGRO ATLANTIC.
Philological divisions. — Haussa Proper, Guberi, Kashna, Mallowa (?), Quolla-
liffa (?), Kallaghi (?).
Religion. — Mohametanism and Paganism.
Physical appearance. — Sub-typical Negroes.
THE FULAHS.
Area. — In the present state of our knowledge, discontinuous. Encroaching.
Divisions. — 1. Senegambian Fulahs. 2. Fellatahs.
Localities. — ]. Of the Senegambian Fulahs. o. The northern bank of the
Senegal, about Lake Kayor, conterminous with the Moors of the Sahara and
Woloff. b. Fouta-Torra, south of the Senegal, in the same longitude, probably
conterminous with the first locality ; conterminous with the Woloff, Sereres,
Mandingos, and Serawollis. c. Bondou, west of Fouta-Torro (with which it
is probably conterminous), on the Rio Nerico. d. Foota-jallo and Tembu, on
the head-waters of the Rio Grande, between the Nalus and the Susu and
Solimana Mandingos. How close these come to sea is uncertain. The Susu,
although said to be Fulah, are certainly Mandingo. e. Brooko and Fuladu,
between the great eastern feeders of the Senegal north of Jallonka Mandingos.
f. Wassela (?), south-east of Fuladu. g. Massina, on the Niger, between
Jenne and Timbuktu.
2. Of the Fellatahs — Cubbi, Ader, Guber ; parts of Borgu, Boussa, Kano,
Zegzeg, as far as 10° north latitude, and 10° east latitude, i.e. parts, probably,
occupied by encroachment on the Haussa, Yarriba, and Nufi areas.
Religion. — Mahometanism, Paganism.
Physical appearance. — £w&-typical Negroes.
The civilization of the Mahometan Fulahs is on the
same level with that of the most civilized (or Proper)
Mandingos.
The departure from the Negro type is, in some instances,
greater than has been the case with any of the sub-typical
Negroes enumerated ; so much so, that the Fulahs of the
Gambia have been called the red Fulahs.
Their extension over Howssa, the Yarribian and the
Tapua countries, has taken place within the historical
period, under a leader named Danfodio.
Nevertheless, the exact original locality of the stock
has yet to be determined.
CUMBRI.
Locality. — Forests, mountain fastnesses and swamps of Borgho, Bowssa, Youri,
and Wawa.
MANDARA. 481
Language. — Not known by a vocabulary, but said to differ from that of the
neighbouring tribes, Tapua and Yarriba.
Physical conformation. — That of the Yarriba.
Religion . — Pagan .
The Cumbri appear to be in the same relation to the
Yarribeans and Fellatahs that the Pulindas are to the Indo-
Gangetic Indians, i.e. the representatives of a dispossessed
population.
SUNGAI.
Locality. — From the parts east of Sego (Sansangding) on the Niger to the parts
about Timbuctu. Probably in Timbuctti itself,
KISSUR.
Locality. — Parts about Timbuctu. Probably Timbuctu itself.
As the Sungai vocabulary of Hodgson represents a diffe-
rent language from the Kissour of Caillie (both profess-
ing to represent the language of Timbuctu) I leave the
investigation for future inquiry.
BORNU.
Locality — Bornu, on the Lake Tshad.
Divisions. — 1. Bornui, semi-civilised and Mahometan. 2. Bedi, rude and
Pagan.
Physical conformation. — More truly Negro, and less safi-typically Negro than
any of the populations of the interior already enumerated.
BIDDUMA.
Locality. — Islands of Lake Tshad. Known by name only.
BEGHARMI.
Locality. — The River Shary, South of Lake Tshad.
Political relations. — Subject to Bornui.
Language. — Known by a vocabulary, and different from both the Bornui
and the —
MANDARA (?)
Locality. -~ South and south-west of Begharmi.
Language. — Known by a vocabulary, and different from both the Begharmi and
Born6i.
Extract from Denham and Clapperton. — " On penetrating a short distance in
this direction, with some people from Mandara, we saw the inhabitants run up
the mountains quite naked, with ape-like agility. On another occasion, a com-
pany of savages were sent from a Kerdy, or Pagan village, termed Musgow, as a
I I
482 NEGRO ATLANTIC.
peace-offering, to deprecate the Sultan, who was on the eve of making a kidnap-
ping expedition into their country. On entering his palace they threw themselves
upon the ground, pouring sand upon their heads, and uttering the most piteous
cries. On their heads, which were covered with long, woolly, or rather bristly
hair, coming quite over their eyes, they wore a cap of the skin of a goat or some
animal like a fox ; round their arms and in their ears were rings of what ap-
peared to be bone, and around the necks of each were from one to six strings of
the teeth of the enemies they had slain in battle ; teeth and pieces of bone were
also pendent from the clotted locks of their hair ; their bodies were marked in
different places with red patches, and their teeth were stained of the same colour.
Their whole appearance is said to have been strikingly wild and truly savage.
Endeavours to set on foot intercourse with them were in vain ; they would hold
no communication, but having obtained leave, carried off the carcase of a horse
to the mountains, where the fires that blazed during the night, and the savage
yells which reached the valley, proved that they were celebrating their brutal
feast."
This, short as it is, is a notice which would apply to no
Negro tribe yet mentioned ; indeed, there are many reasons
for believing that south of the Mandaras the type changes,
and that the populations represented by them are the al-
most unknown tribes of Central and Equatorial Africa.
At any rate, the Mandaras are the most southern tribes
hitherto known of the longitude of Bornu.
And now the comment upon the words typical, and sub-
typical Negroes finds place. The two divisions coincide
closely with the physical character of the area to which
each applies ; the departure from the true Negro features
being greatest where the approach to a high-land or a
#«5£0-land is the closest ; the Bornui being, at one and the
same time, the most like the Negroes of the Coast, and the
occupants of the most notable basin of Central Africa, i. e.
the basin of Lake Tshad.
Due east of Lake Tshad we have, according to a variety
of imperfect descriptions, a series of Negro districts ; and
here it must be admitted that the coincidence between
the Negro conformation and the existence of fluviatile,
lacustrine, or oceanic low-lands is not found to occur ; the
EASTERN NEGROES. 483
greater part of the tract being, according to all accounts,
a tableland.
MOBBA.
Locality. — East of Lake Tshad.
Synonyms. — Called by the Arabs Dar-Saleh and Waday ; Darfurians, Bergu.
Religion. — Chiefly Mahometanism.
Intermixture. — Arab.
FURIANS.*
Locality. — Dar-Fur.
Religion. — Mahometanism. ,
Intermixture. — Arab.
KOLDAGL*
Locality. — Kordofan.
EASTERN NEGRO ATLANTIC.
South and east of the country of the Koldagi we come
to the Negroes of the White Nile (Bahr el Abiad) ; where
the fluviatile character of the soil and the physical appear-
ance of the occupants coincide.
THE SHILLUK.*
THE DENKA.*
THE TUMALI.*
THE SHABUN.*
Locality. — South, or south-west, of the Koldagi.
THE FERTIT.*
Locality. — South of the Shabun.
All these agree in being Pagan Negroes, south and south-
west of Obey d, the capital of Kordofan.
They also agree in being slave countries, the markets
they supply being those of Egypt.
Lastly, their languages have undoubted affinities with
those of the Nubian class, a fact which verifies the statement
at the beginning of the present section, viz. that the group
of African Negroes was artificial rather than natural, since
* See RiippelPs Reise, &c., that author being the first to give the true affinities
of the Koldagi language, i.e. with the Nubian.
u2
484 NEGRO ATLANTIC.
tested by physical form, the Denkas, &c., fall in the same
class with the Ibos, &c., whereas their real affiliation is
with the Nubians.
Through the researches of Dr. L. Tutshek, one of these
languages is known grammatically, i. e. the Tumali ; and
it may be as well to remark that it has (amongst others)
as a Semitic character, the method of expressing grammatical
relations by means of internal change rather than by the
addition of prefixes, postfixes, or inter-fixes, and also that
such changes (as in the Semitic tongues) fall upon the
vowel rather than the consonantal elements of the word.
More undoubted Negroes of the Nile are —
THE QAMAMYL.
Locality. — Fazoglo, or Fazocl, south of Sennaar.
Language. — Peculiar, but with miscellaneous affinities.
THE DALLAS.
Locality. — The Tacazze ; called by Salt, the Shangalla (Shankali) of the
Tacazze.
Language. — Peculiar, but with miscellaneous affinities.
THE DOBA.
I presume that these are the Dar-Mitchegan Shangallas
of Salt, and the Agaumider Shankalas of Beka. If so,
they are occupants of the interior of Abyssinia, and conter-
minous with the Agows of that country ; their language
being peculiar, but with miscellaneous affinities.
And now follow two sections which I place amongst the
Negroes provisionally ; the first because its characteristics,
although pretty well known, are aberrant ; the second,
because our information concerning them is preeminently
imperfect.
They are separated from one another by a large area,
one being north-west, the other south-east of Darfur and
Kordofan, and have little in common except the uncertainty
of their position.
EASTERN NEGROES. 485
THE TIBBOO (?).
Area. — The Eastern Sahara; bounded by the Tuaricks, Egypt, Kanern (of
which the ethnology is uncertain), Mobba, and the Furian and Nubian tribes.
Divisions. — 1. Rechadeh, or Tibboos of the rocks, to the southward and south-
east of Fezzan. The towns of Abo and Tibesty belong to them.
2. The Febabos, situated about ten days' journey towards the south, south-
west of Augelah.
3. The tribe of Borgou, placed further southward, nearly on the parallel of the
southern part of Fezzan.
4. The tribe of Arno.
5. The tribe of Bilma,which is the greatest tribe of the Tibboo nation, and occu-
pies the country between Fezzan and Bonion.
6. Nomadic Tibboos, on the borders of the empire of Bornu.
Physical appearance. — Lips, thick ; hair, curly rather than woolly ; complexion,
varied, from jet-black to a copper colour ; nose, in some tribes, flat, in others
aquiline ; frame, slender.
Language. — With no special, but with numerous miscellaneous affinities. Im-
properly considered to be Berber.— From PricJiard, vol. ii.
THE GONGAS (?).
Present locality. — The valleys of the Rivers Abai and Godjeb.
Original locality. — Enarea, and a large tract south of Abyssinia.
Area. — Discontinuous ; the division being effected by the invasion of Galla
tribes.
Dialects.—]. Kaffa. 2. Woratta. 3. Wolaitso. 4. Yangaro.
Vocabularies. — Those of Dr. Beke, published in the Transactions of the Philo-
logical Society.
The Gonga tribes are in the same relation to the
Abyssinians as the Mandara to the Bornui, i. e. the
occupants of the most southern part of the geographical
area known ; the parts immediately beyond either being
terra incognita.
If, however, the current notions respecting the geo-
graphical structure of Central Africa be correct, and if the
views here exhibited respecting the coincidence between
the Negro type in the way of physical conformation and
the geographical conditions of a fluviatile low-land be
well-founded, the tribes of the interior should depart
materially from the tribes already described ; a probability
which has been indicated in the notices of the Mandara
and Mobba Africans.
486 NEGRO ATLANTIC.
Nay more, inasmuch as the stock next in order of notice
is a stock with a preeminently encroaching frontier, it is
probable that the true affiliations of the southern Abys-
sinians may be lost through the encroachments of the
Gallas and Kaffres, and the consequent extinction of the
tribes representing them.
B.
KAFFBE ATLANTID^E.
THE preliminary facts of most importance in the ethno-
logy of the great Kaffre area are two — connected with
the language, arid from their combined effects giving it the
appearance of differing in kind from any other African
tongue.
These two peculiarities, which are illustrated from Boyce's
Kaffre, and Archbell's Bechuana Grammars, are as fol-
lows : —
1 . The system of prefixes. — Every Kaffre noun is pre-
ceded by an adventitious syllable, apparently destitute of
any separate meaning ; just as if, in English, we said,
instead of —
Father, a£-father.*
Son, el-son.
Mother, em-mother.
So far is this principle carried that the words introduced by
the missionaries, from our own language, all become thus
modified. Hence priest changes to um-priest ; pharisee, um-
pharisee. I imagine that without this prefix the simple
root would be as impossible a form for a Kaffre or Bechu-
ana as a word like ogvtd- (i. e. a root without any conco-
mitant inflexion) would be to a Greek. Nevertheless, the
Kaffre prefix is no sign of case or number.
In the following words the syllables in italics are the
* These are not the real Kaffre prefixes, being merely meant for the sake of
illustration, they are arbitrary syllables.
488 KAFFRE ATLANTIC.
prefixes, wholly independent in origin from the root, and
wholly non-radical : —
ENGLISH. KAFFRE.
Person umtu.
Horse zhashe.
Chief inkosi.
Servant m'kaka.
Infant wsana.
River wmlambo.
Face MDUSO.
Ford aAratya.
People a&antu.
Words a;waswe.
Cattle inkorao.
Trees imiti.
2. The euphonic or alliterational concord. — This is a
point of Kaffre syntax, and occurs when certain words come
together ; e. g. in the case of a substantive governing
another in the possessive case, or an adjective agreeing with
a substantive. In either of these cases the secondary word
changes its initial sound into that of the primary one, or into
some sound allied to it.
If in English we expressed the relation between the
nominative and possessive cases on the same principle
that occurs in the Kaffre and Bechuana, we should say
instead of —
-Man's dog — e?an dog.
/Sun's beam — Sun beam.
.Father's daughter — father daughter, &c.
It may easily be imagined that languages thus charac-
terised, taken along with undoubted points of physical
difference, have supplied the grounds for a somewhat broad
line of demarcation between the Kaffre and the other
Africans. That such a line is natural, is certain ; whether
it has not been made too broad, is another question.
KAFFRE NATIONS AND TRIBES.
Physical conformation. — Modified Negro.
Language. — Prefixional and alliterational.
WESTERN KAFFRES. 489
Area. — Western, Central (?), and Eastern Africa, from the north of the
Equator to the south of the Tropic of Capricorn.
Chief divisions. — 1. Western. 2. Southern Kaffres. 3. Eastern Kaffres.
That there is no broad line between the Kaffre and non-
Kaffre Africans, on the western side of Africa at least, is
shown by the following populations ; whereof both the
languages, as known by vocabularies, and the physical con-
formations are intermediate or transitional.
1.
WESTERN KAFFRES.
Beginning with the parts south of the Bimbia area we
have between the river of that name and the Portuguese
kingdom of Loango —
THE BATANGAS.
Native rtame. — Banaka.
Locality. — Sea-coast of Western Africa Slf3 north latitude, half way between
the Camaroonsand Gaboon.
Physical appearance. — More Kafire than Negro ; skin more copper-coloured
than black ; sclerotica clear.
THE PANWES.
Locality. — Eastward to, and more in the interior than the Batangas ; from 3°
north latitude to 3° south latitude, on the Head- waters of the Gaboon.
THE MPOONGAS.
Locality — Mouth of the Gaboon.
Then follow the nations of — 1. Loango; 2. Congo; 3.
Angola ; and 4. Benguela ; closely allied both in language
and appearance, and nations whose place in the Kaffre
division has long been recognised.
That there is, however, considerable difference in respect
to the physical conformation of the different tribes, is
certain ; some writers, reducing the native of Portuguese
Africa to the Negro, others to the proper Kaffrarian, or
South Kaffre, type.
If the difference between these two extremes be rightly
estimated by the present writer, the former should prevail
490 KAFFRE ATLANTIC.
along the courses, the latter on the watersheds of the
rivers. His information, however, is imperfect upon this
point.
2.
SOUTHERN KAFFRES.
Area. — The extra- tropical portion of South Africa, minus the parts south,
Walvisch Bay on the west, and the water-system of the Orange River. —
Encroaching.
Chief divisions. — 1. Amakosas, nearest the Cape. 2. Bechuanas, north of the
head-waters of the Orange River. 3. Zulus, north of the Bechuanas, with an
undetermined extent inland. Numerous sub-divisions.
Physical conformation. — Cranium, more vaulted and less prognathic than the
Negro ; hair, tufted, and as such approaching that of the Hottentot ; zygomatic
development, outwards rather than downwards, so that the cheek-bones become
projecting, and the forehead and chin tapering ; lips, generally thick, and nasal
profile less generally depressed than with the Negro ; colour, black, dark brown,
clear brown ; stature, tall.
Habits. — Pastoral rather than agricultural.
Religion. — Pagani sm .
Customs. — Circumcision and tattooing.
The Dammaras. — Are the Dammaras Kaffre ? This
will be noticed in p. 495.
The Kaffres of Lagoa Bay, darker and more Negro- like
than the typical Kaffres of Kaffraria, form the transition
between the southern Kaffres and the eastern divisions of
the tribes of Inhambane, Sofala, and Botonga, and the
water-system of the river Yambezi. They are Negro rather
than Kaffrarian, their languages being but imperfectly
known.
3.
EASTERN KAFFRES.
So are those of Mozambique and Zanzibar ; chiefly
represented by the Makuas, the Monjous, and the tribes
speaking the Suaheli language. A vast accession to our
philological data for these parts proves incontestably the
Kaffre structure of the languages of the coast from the
Cape of Good Hope to nearly 5° north latitude.
INLAND KAFFRES.
But the tribes of the unknown parts of Central Africa,
south of the equator, are also, probably, either wholly, or
almost wholly, Kaffre. It is this which has induced me
to pass sicco pede over the numerous details of the Kaffres
of the coast, so as to allow space for a short notice of the
newer additions to our knowledge of the inland Kaffres,
west and east.
a. West. — The Kazumbi, said to live at such a dis-
tance from the coast, as to be obliged to travel three or
four moons, before they reach any of the possessions of the
Portuguese and to speak a language which resembles, in
many words (especially the numerals), the Congo. This is
probably the Cazambe of the maps, nearly in the centre
of Africa, in 13° south latitude.
The Koniunki* — From some captured Negroes examined
by the Rev. T. Arbousset, of the Paris Missionary Society,
a few words have been collected of the Koniuuki lan-
guage. They are apparently of the Kaffre class.
English, eyes
Koniunki, maro
Kaffre, amehlo
Sechuana, matlo
Makua, meto
Monjou, meto
Suaheli, matsho
English, water
Koniunki, mose
Kaffre, amanzi
Sechuana, metse
Delagoa Bay, amatc
Makua, amazi
Monjou, mizi
English, tree
Koniunki, mote
Kaffre, umti
Sechuana, sefate
English, two
Koniunki, mapelo
Kaffre, amabini
Sechuana, maJbcri
Delagoa Bay, mabizi
Suaheli, mabizi
English, three
Koniunki, mataru
Suaheli, madato
Kaffre, amatatu
Sechuana, mararu
Delagoa Bay, mararu
The locality of the Koniunkis was also said to be so far
* Dr. Adamson's speech, at the Wesleyan Missionary Meeting, in 1846. —
Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. i. No. 4.
492 KAFFRE ATLANTIC.
ill the interior, as for the gang to have been three or four
months in reaching the Mozambique coast.
This indicates that they were east of the Kazumbi,
whilst the affinity of the language with the Bechuana gives
them a southward direction.
The Mazenas, mentioned along with the Kouiunkis, as
lying between them and the Makuas.*
Hence, the Congo, the Kazumbi, Koniunki, and Ma-
zena areas, probably, carry us across the whole continent
in (about) 13° south latitude ; whilst the likelihood of the
southern Koniunki and northern Bechuauas being con-
terminous, helps to fill up the void spaces north of the
parts about Litaku.
b. East. — Parts about Mombaz, Formosa Bay, Lama,
Patta, &c.
POCOMO.
Locality. — River Pocomosi (Maro).
Conterminous with the southernmost section of the Gallas.
WANIKA.
Locality. — North and west of Mombaz.
The Mahometanism of the Wanikas, if it exist at all,
is of the most imperfect kind. They practise circumcision,
it is true ; but this is a general African, quite as much as
a particular Semitic, rite — " They bury their dead, placing
the head to the east ; and it is customary, after waiting ten
days, to kill a bullock and make a feast, pouring the blood
upon the grave." The Wanika man seen by Pickering,
"bore the marks of a national designation ; consisting of
a single notch, filed between the two upper front teeth, with
numerous small scars on the breast."
* Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. i. No. 4.
INLAND KAFFRES, 493
WAKAMBA.
Synonym . — Merremengo.
Locality. — Mixed with, and conterminous with the Wanika.
WATAITA (?).
Locality. — Five days from the coast ; conterminous with the Wakamba.
TAVAITI (?).
Locality. — Westward of the Wataita.
iMnguage. — Different from the Chaga and M'Kuafi. Probably akin to the
Wanika.
M'SIGUA.
Locality. — Pungany River. Scattered among the Wanika.
M'SAMBARA.
Language. — As known from a vocabulary of Krapf's, closely akin to the Po-
como, Wakamba, Wanika, and M'Sigua.
This last sentence suggests the nature of our reasons for
making the tribes just enumerated Kaffre. The dialects
of five of them are known by specimens, collected by Krapf,
and are very nearly Suaheli. The evidence of the Kaffre
origin of the Tavaiti and Wataita is less conclusive.
The M'Kuafi.— Are the M'Kuafi Kaffre ? This question
will be noticed in p. 501 .
% # -n- -5C- #
It has been suggested that the import of the peculi-
arities in the structure of the Kaffre languages may have
been exaggerated; the effect of such an over-valuation
being to isolate the class beyond its proper limit. The
following facts are corrective to this view : —
1. The Woloff language is at least one other African
tongue, which exhibits the phenomenon of an initial
change, a process allied to the euphonic concord.
2. The Celtic tongues of Europe do the same.
3. Apparent instances of prefixed syllables, occur in
the Howssa, Yarribean, and probably in other African
languages.
494 KAFFRE ATLANTIC.
Now there are many good reasons for believing that
although the effect of such and such-like processes is to
give the languages in which they occur a very remark-
able external appearance — an appearance which, if we
classed tongues and nations on the same principles upon
which we class minerals, i.e. irrespective of descent and
affiliation, would throw them into solitary and indepen-
dent groups — they by no means denote the necessity of
any inordinately long period for the evolution. All that
they do denote is the greater intensity of what may be
called the euphonic instinct, combined with a tendency
to incorporate elements which, elsewhere, would be kept
separate.
A doctrine laid down by Mr. Hales in his Philology to
the United States Exploring Expedition, indicating a dif-
ferent classification from the present, deserves notice.
That inquirer considers that the line of affinity runs
west and east, rather than north and south ; so that the
Kaffres of Inhambane, Zanzibar, and Mozambique are more
closely allied to those of Loango and Angola than the
Kosas. Bechuanas and Zulus of the Cape. The published
evidence of the proposition is certainly insufficient.
c.
HOTTENTOT ATLANTID^E.
THE Hottentot stock has a better claim to be considered
as forming a second species of the genus Homo than any
other section of mankind. It can be shown, however, that
the language is no more different from those of the world
in general than they are from each other.
THE HOTTENTOT ATLANTIC.
Area. The southern extremity of Africa. Encroached upon by a. the Kaf-
fres ; 6. the Dutch and English of the Cape.
Divisions. 1. The Hottentots. 2. The Saabs.
Physical conformation. Stature, low ; limbs, slight ; colour, more brown or
yellow than black (that of new-born children said to be nearly white) ; cheek-
bones, prominent ; nasal profile, depressed ; hair, in tufts rather than equally
distributed over the head. — Thus described by Barrow ; " It does not cover the
whole surface of the scalp, but grows in small tufts, at certain distances from each
other, and when clipped short, has the appearance and feel of a hard shoe-brush,
except that it is curled and twisted into small, round lumps, about the size of a
marrow-fat pea. When suffered to grow, it hangs on the neck in hard, twisted
tassels, like a fringe."* — Eyes, oblique ; vision, acute ; cranium, Mongoliform
with wide orbits, brakhykephalic, nasal profile extremely flat, broad at the root ;
and the chin, long, forward, and thin.
Pelvis, with a maximum difference in structure according as it is male or
female ; that of the former being strong and dense, that of the latter, light, and
delicate. In both cases a minimum of diploe between the bony plates ; ossa ilii,
vertical ; sacrum, narrow ; conjugate diameter, short ; neck of the thigh-bone,
short, and with an oblique direction.'f — Vrolik. — Oftener wedge-shaped or oblong,
than oval, round, or square. — Weber.
Buttocks often steatomatous.J
Physical condition of area. — Karroos, i.e. elevated terraces and table-lands,
with the soil dry, hard, clayey, fissured, rarely moistened with rain, and chiefly
productive of the succulent classes of the vegetable kingdom.
* Prichard, vol. ii. p. 278. f Ibid. p. 332.
J Aliquando, apud hanc nationem, nympharum protuberantia enormis — minime
vero apud omnes — occurrit.
496 HOTTENTOT ATLANTIC.
Language. — Containing two inarticulate elements, viz. h (like other tongues) ?
and a peculiar and characteristic click.
Intermixture. — Dutch, the Griquas of the Orange River being a mixed stock.
Habits. — Pastoral and hunter state ; the latter exhibiting the lower forms of
the type (i.e. the Saabs, or Bushmen, once disconnected from the others, and
considered as forming a separate and more degraded class).
1.
HOTTENTOTS.
The extinct sections of the Hottentot division are : —
1. Gunyeman, nearest the Cape.
2. Kokha^wa, north of the Gunyemau.
3. Snssaqua, Saldanha Bay.
4. Odiqua.
5. Khirigri^was, on Elephants'* River.
6. Koopmans.
7. Hessa^Mas.
8. Sonquas, east of the Cape.
9. Dunquas.
10.
11.
12. Honteni^was.
13. Khantouers.
14. Heykoms, as far on the north-east as Natal. Now
replaced by Amakosah Kaffres.
Extant. — 1. Gonag-Mas, south-east, on the Great Fish
River. Prohably replaced by Amakosah Kaffres.
2. Korag'was (Kora, Korana), north-east frontier, on
the upper part of the Orange River. — In the more favourable
localities the Koraquas are the tallest and best-looking men
of the Hottentot stock. On the other hand, the Koras of
the Hartebeest River, who formerly possessed, but have
since lost their cattle, "exhibit the obvious process by
which the Bushmen race have been originally driven back
from the pastoral state, to that of the huntsman and
THE DAMMARAS. 497
robber," — Thompsons Travels in Southern Africa. -
Prichard, vol. ii. p. 274.
3. Namag'Mas, separated from the Koranas by the Saabs.
Occupants of the lower part of the Orange River, i. e.
Little Namaqualand to the south, and Great Namaqualand
to the north of its mouth.
9
2"
SAABS.
Locality. — The country between the Roggeveld and the middle portion of the
Orange River ; pre-eminently a Karroo.
Habits. — Hunters.
Language. — Wholly or nearly unintelligible to the other Hottentots.
Area. — Encroached upon the Koranas, who are their deadly enemies, and con-
tinually at war with them.
Are the Dammaras Kaffre or Hottentot ? This has
already been asked.
On the authority 6f Mr. Barrow, Prichard corrects
Vater and Maltebrun for making the Dammaras Hottentot
instead of Kaffre. The term, however, is a geographical
rather than an ethnological one, comprising the tribes
inhabiting those parts to the north and south of Waalvisch
Bay, which are marked in the maps as sterile country, and
lying between Benguela (where the languages belong to
the Congo class of the Kaffre languages), and Namaqualand,
where the inhabitants are Hottentots.
Now, geographically speaking, the Dammaras fall into
two divisions : a,* the Dammaras of the Plains, or cattle
Dammaras, and 5, the Hill Dammaras. These latter in-
habit the parts to the north and north-east of Namaqua-
land, and are Namaqua Hottentots. The former only
belong to the Kaffre division, and extend as far north as
17° south latitude.
Forced downwards by the stronger tribes of the Kaffres,
* Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. i. No. 4.
K K
498 HOTTENTOT ATLANTIC.
with their periphery overlaid, the Hottentots probably
represent a population whose original area was extended
much more towards the north — possibly as far as the
central range of mountains. Nay, more — fragments of the
stock may still, in central Africa, interrupt the Kaffre
area, and form future discoveries in ethnology.
This possible northward extension of the Hottentot area
has a bearing upon the questions connected with the popu-
lation of Madagascar.
•5;- •* -x- *- * •«•
Overlaying of the periphery of an ethnological area. —
Let two divisions of a certain class pass into each other by
imperceptible degrees, and let one of the central portions of
either class spread itself at the expense of the parts be-
longing to its circumference.
The effect which follows is, that 'those portions of this
area, which represent the phsenomena of transition, are
overlaid, or overlapped ; and that instead of two popula-
tions coming into contact by imperceptible degrees, they
meet as separate classes, with as broad a line of demarca-
tion between their respective representatives at the circum-
ferences (peripheries) of their respective areas, as there
was between their central or typical portions.
North-western America illustrates this. The more
southern Algonkins have overlaid both the Algonkins of
their own section, which approached the Eskimo, and the
Eskimo of the opposite section, which approached the
Algonkin. Hence the two populations meet as widely-
separated, and broadly distinguished varieties of mankind.
D- ;. :•>
NILOTIC ATLANTID^.
! I '
THIS is a far less simple group than the last, and one
which may, probably, require the value of some of its
divisions to be raised. Besides which, it probably com-
prizes, if classed according to the strict rules of ethnology,
the eastern Negroes of our first division. Again, it passes
into the Kaffre, Coptic, and Semitic groups by impercepti-
ble gradations. At the same time, as far as it goes, it is
ethnological, i.e. it embraces populations actually affiliated
to each other rather than populations exhibiting the com-
mon effects of common social or climatological conditions.
NILOTIC NATIONS AND TRIBES.
Physical conformation, — Modified Negro, in certain cases approaching the Arab
conformation.
Area. — The water system of the Upper and Middle Nile.
Chief divisions. — 1. Gallas. 2. Agows. 3. Nubians. 4. Bisharis (?).
As it is the southern portion of the Nilotic area, which
is conterminous with the northern Kaffre, the southern
populations will be noticed first.
THE GALLAS.
Area. — Pre-eminently encroaching. From 4° to (there or the reabouts) 16°
north latitude. Irregular.
Chief divisions. — 1. Galla Proper, or Ilmorma — south and east of Abyssinia.
2. Somauli — The parts between the Sea of Bab-el-Mandeb, the Indian Ocean,
and (there or thereabouts) 45° east latitude.
3. The Danakil, or Afer — The coast of the Red Sea from Adel to Suakin.
Religion. — Paganism, Mahometanism. According to Ur. Beke, fragmentary
Christianity among the Gallas.
Habits. — Chiefly pastoral. Partially mercantile.
K K '2
500 NILOTIC ATLANTIC.
Physical appearance. — Colour varying from a deep black to a brownish-yellow.
Stature, tall ; bodies, spare, wiry, and muscular ; frontal profile vaulted ; nose,
often straight or even arched ; lips, moderate ; hair, often hanging over the neck
in .long twisted plaits.
It is the wilder tribes of the Ilmorma Gallas that have
broken up the kingdom, and disturbed the ethnology of
Abyssinia, both in respect to its Semitic populations, and
the earlier and more aboriginal —
AGOWS.
Divisions and localities. — 1. Agows of Damot.
2. Agows of Lasta ; Troglodyte Pagans.
3. Falasha — a. Lowlanders of Dembea. 6. Highlanders of Samien. c. Chris-
tianized Falashas (Kimmont) of the hill country, north-east of Gondar. — Bruce
from Pricliard, vol. ii. p. 135.
The fact that both the Galla and Agow languages pass
through the Amharic into the more typical Semitic tongues,
and that the former (over and above many undeniable
points of affinity with the Coptic) is quite as s^S-Semitic
as the Berber, is one of the many phsenomena which break
down the broad line of demarcation that is so often drawn
between the Semitic and the African nations.
Again, the extent to which the Falashas exhibit a
variety of customs common to themselves and the Jews
has long been recognized. It by no means, however, fol-
lows that they are a result of Jewish influence. The cri-
ticism that applied to the Ghas applies here. Many of the
so-called Jewish peculiarities are African as well — irrespec-
tive of intercourse, and independent of imitation.
THE NUBIANS.
Locality. — Valley of the Nile, Nubia, and Dongola.
Dialects. — a. North Nubian, or Kensi. b. Middle Nubian, or Nub. c. Don-
golawi of Dongola.
Synonym. — Barabbra, or Berber.
Antiquities. — Monuments of a. an ^Egyptian, in the Lower, 6. an -Ethiopian
type in the Upper Nubia.
Political relations. — Subject to .ZEgypt.
THE BISHARI. 501
Intermixture. — Arab. Negro from slaves.
Religion. — Paganism and Mahometanism.
Habits. — Agricultural and trading.
Physical appearance. — Eyes, deep set and sparkling ; nose, pointed; nostrils,
large ; mouth, wide ; lips, moderate ; hair and beard, thin ; body, slender; colour,
shining jet black. — Denon*
Hair, long, slightly crisp, not woolly. Colour, intermediate between tJie ebon-
black of Sennaar Negroes, and the brown of ^Egyptians.* — Costaz.
Extract from Riippell* as to the Dongolawi. — " An attentive inquiry will en-
able us to distinguish amongst the old national physiognomies, which their fore-
fathers have marked upon colossal statues, and the bas-reliefs of temples i and
sepulchres, a long oval countenance, beautifully-curved nose, somewhat rounded
towards the top, proportionately thick lips, but not protruding excessively, a
retreating chin, scanty beard, lively eyes, strongly frizzled but never woolly
hair, and remarkably beautiful figure, generally of middle size, and a bronze
colour, as the characteristics of the genuine Dongolawi."
Descent. — From the ancient Nobatse.
The relation between the Nubian of Nubia, and the
Koldagi language of Kordofan, was first indicated by Riip-
pell, and has been generally admitted.
On -the other hand, the relations of the Koldagi not
only to the Furians of Darfur, but to the more truly
Negro Shilluks, &c., are equally manifest.
From the Egyptian, therefore, to the Eastern Negro,
the transition is through the Nubian.
BISHARI (BEJAS).
Area. — The high country, and table-land between the Nile and the Red Sea.
Divisions. — 1. Northern Bishari or Ababde, from the latitude of Kosseir,
north ; to Deir, south.
2. Southern Bishari (=the Hadendoa, Hammadab, and other tribes) from the
Danakil, -/Ethiopia and portions of the Shankala area to the Ababdes.
Language. — With definite affinities with both the Nubian and Coptic.
Descent. — Probably from the ancient Blemmyes.
Physical appearance. — Nearly that of Nubians.
Habits. — Pastoral and wandering.
What are the M'Kuafi? This was asked in p. 493.
The M'Kuafi west of Mombaz, are conterminous with
the Southern Gallas, and with the KafTre Wanika, &c.
* Prichard, vol. ii. p. 174.
502 NILOTIC ATLANTIC.
From these last, however, the only known vocabulary
of their language disconnects them.
Hence they are at present unplaced ; since they may
be Kaffre, Gallas, Gongas, or, finally, the representatives
of a separate class altogether. The only description is
the following one of Pickering"^ : —
" The information respecting them was derived from
young persons seen at Zanzibar, where, according to the
Arabs, slaves of this class were formerly cheap, and much
esteemed, but now bring high prices.
" A M'Kuafi girl stated, that she had been captured
by the Mussai ; who killed her father and mother, and
who sold her to the Chaga. She was twenty-five days
in reaching the coast. Formerly, her nation was powerful
above others, so that one woman with a stick would stop
a thousand persons from passing through the country un-
less a present was first made ; but her people are broken,
and at present they would not fight the M'Sigua.
"Her people do not cultivate the ground, and they eat
only milk and meat. Children, when hungry, help them-
selves by direct application to the cow. Cattle are killed
by piercing the spine ; numbers of them every day, until
each family is supplied. The JVTKuafi have not fixed
meal times, but they eat whenever they feel inclined, in-
viting their neighbours of the same village to partake
with them. Each family has its own cattle, which all go
to pasture together, and outside the town is a place to
receive them at night. The men marry as many women
as they please ; and each wife has a separate house.
These habitations are tents of bullock-skin, supported by
poles set around. The men decorate themselves with
large beads, and their dress is made of skin, and consists
of a painted cincture full of openings and hanging strips,
THE M'KUAFI. 503
and of a long cloak worn over one shoulder. Cloth, how-
ever, now is brought by traders. The women, by way
of ornament, coil brass wire about the arm as far as the
elbow. The beads and brass wire are procured at Pemba,
by selling ivory, obtained from elephants, some of which
are found dead, while others are purposely killed.
" The jVTKuafi do not bury, but they put their dead in
the bush, for the wild beasts to eat. The friends after-
wards cry from ten to twenty days, and then kill three
bullocks and make a feast. The M'Kuafi have neither
prayers nor religion, but they eat and sleep. The name
of their deity is Angayai ; and on some big days they take
feathers and dance. They have cows, goats, donkeys,
sheep, and dogs ; but neither cats, nor horses. They take
off the fleece of the sheep, and spin yarn, with which
they sew the skins together. They have gourd shells for
holding water, which are bought of the Chaga. They go
out to fight with the Mussai, frequently, sometimes every
day ; and they take cattle ; they fight, also, with the
Wampugo, and the Wataita, but not with the Chaga.
The country of the JVTKuafi, consists of mountains and
plains, and produces some trees which supply tent-poles,
but there are no fruits. Persons while sleeping, are some-
times eaten by leopards.
" On another occasion, the same girl brought two of
her companions, and they sang together some simple and
plaintive airs, such as are used ' in getting children to
sleep.' Their dancing was not graceful, but was some-
what violent arid not altogether decent. Their language
was soft, and I heard terminal vowels only, the two syl-
lables ' goonga,1 frequently recurring. I read to them
some translations in the Galla ; but this proved to be a
different language, and they did not recognise a word.
504 NILOTIC ATLANTIC.
On being questioned on the subject, the first girl said,
' she did not wish to return home, for her relations were
all dead ;' and some tears followed the allusion to the sub-
ject. Beads being offered, she preferred the red to the
blue, according to the general taste in this part of Africa.
Of the other girls, one came from Kaputa, and the third
from Aseta.
" A fourth girl, whom I interrogated, was too young to
give much information, and she, besides, had not yet learned
the Soahili language. It appeared that she ' had been
stolen by some Chaga ; that she came from the vicinity of
the Kilmungaro mountain (which is visible from the sea),
and that she understood the language of the other girls
when they were brought together.
" A highly intelligent lad, who had the lobe of one ear
perforated, stated, that the size of this opening, among the
M'Kuafi, ' indicates the rank of the individual, the king
having one of very remarkable dimensions.1 With regard
to his own history he stated, that, ' on the occasion of an
attack by some foreign tribe, he, with other children, hid
themselves ; but the circumstance had been observed at
some distance by some Wampugo, who came to the spot
and carried them away. The towns of the M'Kuafi are
not fixed ; but when the grass fails, a new one is made in
another place. The M'Kuafi ride donkeys ; they eat beef
and sheep, and drink water and milk. It is customary, when
a man kills a bullock, to send a piece to the king, to give
another on account of circumcision, and then to call his
friends to eat the remainder. There are camelopards in
the country ; and poor people, who have no bullocks, kill
them for food, taking them in pitfalls, or sometimes with
poison.
" The mode of circumcising differs from that prevailing
THE M'KUAFI. 505
among the Moslim. The government likewise differs ; and
if one man kills another, the price of blood is from ten
to twenty bullocks.
" The M'Kuafi put on a cap of ostrich feathers when
they go out to fight. On a former occasion they beat the
ATSigua, taking all the cattle, which they sold at Zan-
zibar. They fight with the Wakamba towards sunrise ;
and they are so warlike that they would fight even with
their nearest relations. They sometimes go to the Mono-
moisy country to fight and take property ; but not into
the country of the Chaga, with whom they do not fight,
unless meeting by accident. They fight, however, with
the Lupalaconga, who live on a mountain, and speak the
same language with the Chaga ; and who, according to
his description, must be a Negro tribe.
" His people once went towards sunrise to fight with the
Sikir-washi, who are the nation called Galla at Zanzibar.
They saw a large river which ' came dry,' and men carry-
ing large spears, who spoke a different language from their
own. They took all the cattle and donkeys, and the fat-
tailed sheep ; but they disdained taking the horses, an
animal they had never before seen. The king of the Sikir-
washi wears a large beard, while the rest of the people
shave : using for the purpose a sort of small iron chisel ;
and these practices prevail equally with the JVTKuafi.
" When the lad was asked about the Mussai, he rejoined
with some emotion, — ' They who break my country : he
knew them well ; they dwell further inland than the
JVfKuafiV
" He did not know how old he was, and asked, ' if any
one could tell him/ His people have no prayers : he could
not speak lies. He did not wish to return to his native-
country — he had got no bullocks ; he was now a slave :
506 NILOTIC ATLANTIC.
no matter, he should soon die. He did not know where
he should go to after death. He had heard that God had
made him, that was all."
MUSSAI (?).
Locality. — West of the M'Kuafi ; to which tribes they are allied. Probably
M'Kuafi.
CHAGA (?).
Locality. — South-west of the Wanika, on the upper part of the Pungany
River.
Habits. — Circumcision. Probably M'Kuafi.
WAMPAGO (?).
Locality. — On the Ruvu, a feeder of the Pungany, within half a day's journey
of the M'Kuafi country. Probably M'Kuafi.
M'KINDO (?).
Locality. — Two days west of Quiloa. Probably M'Kuafi.
M'HIAO.
Locality. — Uncertain. Most likely to the west of the M'Kindo. Probably
M'Kuafi.
The JVTHiao markings " vary in different individuals,
but often consist of raised scars or welts crossing each
other, like stars. Many of the females have the upper
lip perforated." — Pickering.
E.
THE AMAZIRGH ATLANTID^E.
THE Amazirgh, a native name of one of the Cabyle tribes
of Algiers, is here used in a general sense, instead of the
more usual term Berber; a term which is nowhere recog-
nized by any Amazirgh population, and which, under a
modified form, is recognized by portions of the won-Amazirgh
Nubians.
AMAZIRGH NATIONS AND TRIBES.
Physical conformation. — Sometimes a modification of the Negro, sometimes of
the Arab type.
Languages. — With a vocabulary generally considered to be peculiar, but with
a grammatical structure considered to be (if not absolutely Semitic) *M&-Semitic.
Distribution. — Speaking roughly, the whole north-western quarter of Africa
plus a narrow strip along the Mediterranean from about 1 5° east latitude to the
confines of ./Egypt.
Descent. — From the ancient Gsetulians, Numidians, Mauritanians, and Cy-
renseans.
Area. — Encroached upon along the coast of the Mediterranean —
1. In ancient times by — a. Phoenicians, b. Greeks, c. Romans.
2. In modern times by — Mahometan Arabs.
Physical conditions. — Occupants of — a. The mountain range of Atlas. 6. Tho
Sahara, c. The Canary Isles.
Chief Divisions. — 1. Siwans, of the Oasis of Siwah, the ancient Ammonium.
2. Cabyles, of the range of Atlas. 3. Tuaricks, of the Sahara. 4. Guanches, of
the Canary Islands. These last either extinct or incorporated.
Dialects as known from specimens. — 1. Of Siwah. 2. Augila. 3. Fezzan.
4. Ghadamis. 5. Algeria (numerous). 6. Morocco. 7. The Sahara. 8. The
Canaries.
Alphabets.— 1. Arabic. 2. Tuarick.
Antiquities. — The Bilingual inscription, Carthaginian and Berber (?) of Dugga,
known as the Inscriptio Tuggensis.
The aboriginal character of the Amazirgh tribes, taken
with the likelihood of their representing the tributaries of
Carthage, and the subjects of Masinissa, Syphax, Juba,
508 AMAZIRGH ATLANTIC.
Jugurtha, and Bocchus, has commanded the attention of
scholars, and has led to important results.
That its grammatical structure is Semitic (or at least
swi-Semitic) has been shown by Mr. F. Newman, who has
also shown that the Haussa has Amazirgh elements. The
fact, however, of its vocabulary having fewer Semitic forms
than its grammar has complicated the philology. Never-
theless it does contain numerous Semitic words ; whilst its
isolation from the other tongues of Africa has been most
gratuitous. So far from such being the case, it supplies a
long list of words with miscellaneous affinities.*
With the Guanches of the Canaries we find the Egyp-
tian habit of desiccating the bodies of the dead into
mummies.
With the Tuaricks of Wadreag, Mr. Hodgson found
hair so crisp and skin so black, as to look like Negroes.
There was, however, no suspicion of Negro intermixture.
On the other hand, so light- complexioned are the Ama-
zirghs of the ancient Mons Aurasius, that the hypothesis
of an intermixture of Vandalic blood from the subjects of
Genseric has been entertained.
* Some of these have been collected by the present writer. See Classical
Museum, vol. i.
F.
.EGYPTIAN ATLANTID^E.
By .Egyptian Atlantidse are meant the Old .Egyptians;
the subjects of the Pharaohs and the Ptolemies ; and the
modern Copts so far as they are (what is rarely the case)
of unmixed blood ; the present dominant population of
.Egypt being Arab.
COPTS.
Area. — The valley and delta of the Nile, from Essouan to the Mediterranean.
Physical conformation. — A. Of the Old ^Egyptians preserved as mummies. —
Hair, fine, and either waved or curly ; skull, with an upright frontal, and a mode-
rately depressed nasal profile ; maxillary profile, moderately prognathic ; teeth,
much worn ; colour, undetermined. According to the testimony of ancient
writers and paintings, darker than that of the Greek, lighter than that of the
Nubian. Perhaps brown, with tinges of yellow and red.
B. Of the Modern Copts. — Hair, black and crisp, or curled ; cheek-bones, pro-
jecting ; lips, thick ; nose, somewhat depressed ; nostrils, wide ; complexion, va-
ried, from a yellowish to a dark brown ; eyes, oblique ; frame, tall and fleshy ;
physiognomy, heavy and inexpressive.
Religion oft/te Modern Copts. — Christianity.
Pantheon of the Ancient ^Egyptians. — Osiris, Isis, Anubis, Horus, Typhon,
Phtha, Neith, &c.
Language. — Coptic in three dialects. 1. The Memphitic. 2. Sahitic. 3.
Bashmuric.
Alphabets. — 1 . Hieroglyphic, of unknown, 2. Coptic, of Greek origin.
The researches of Benfey and others, have shown the
extent to which the .Egyptian language, those of Morton
(in the Crania -^Egyptiaca) the extent to which the ^Egyp-
tian osteology is Semitic ; indeed this side of the question
has gained quite as much admission as the evidence justifies.
The determination of what may be called the other
aspect of the ^Egyptian language has been attempted with
less success.
510 .EGYPTIAN ATLANTIC.
Klaproth compared it with the Caucasian languages : the
evidence of Herodotus as to the ^Egyptian origin of the Col-
chians indicating this relation.
The Chevalier Bunsen has connected it with the Indo-
European ; the early development of ^Egyptian civilization
dicating this.
The real affinities are those which its geographical situa-
tion indicates, viz. with the Berber, Nubian, and Galla
tongues, and through them with the African languages
altogether,* Negro and non- Negro.
*A short list of the words common to the Coptic and the African tongues at
large, may be found in the author's Report on Ethnographical Philology Traits-
actions oftfie British Association for t/te Advancement of Science, 1847, p. 223.
a.
SEMITIC ATLANTID^E.
No error is greater than to imagine that connection with
the Semitic is synonymous with separation from the African
stock, a remark which leads us from the Copts to —
THE SEMITIC TRIBES AND NATIONS.
Area. — Abyssinia, Arabia, Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, parts of Kurdistan.
Physical conformation. — Light-complexioned Atlantidae, with dolikhokephalic
capacious crania, straight or prominent nasal and orthognathic maxillary profiles.
Referable to three types. 1. The Arab. 2. The Jew. 3. The Kaldani.
Influence on the History of the World. — Preeminently moral — spiritually as
well as intellectually. In the case of the Arabs, material as well.
Religion. — Preeminently monotheistic for the later part of their history. For
the earlier part, Paganism.
Social and civilizational development. — Early, influential, and probably as much
self-developed as that of either the ./Egyptians or the Hellenic lapetidae.
Alphabet. — With the exception of the ^Ethiopic, written from right to left. The
earliest in the world.
Divisions. — More or less artificial. — Syrians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoeni-
cians, Beni Terah, Arabs, Ethiopians, Solymi (?), Cappadocians (?), Elamites (?),
Cyprians (?), Philistines (?), Canaanites (?).
SYRIANS.
Area. — Syria, Coelosyria, part of Mesopotamia, the northern and eastern fron-
tier being undetermined.
Divisions. — 1. Syrians of Syria, either extinct or incorporate.
2. Syrians of Mesopotamia, ditto.
3. Syrians of Kurdistan or Kaldani.
Physical appearance of the Kaldani. — Mountaineers, with fair complexions, grey
eyes, and reddish beard.
Religion of— a. The ancient Syrians, chiefly Nestorian Christianity, b. Of
the Kaldani, the same.
Pantheon of tli& Pagan Syrians. — Thammuz, Rimmon, &c.
Languages. — 1. Syriac of Syria. 2. Chaldee of Mesopotamia. 3. Kaldani of
Kurdistan.
512 SEMITIC ATLANTIC.
The Syrian influence as an element of civilization has,
probably, been undervalued. It was through the Syriac
that two contiguous nations received much of their know-
ledge of what was to be learned from Greece, the Arme-
nian and the Arabian ; the latter, whose civilizational
influence has been proportionately over-rated, being in
many cases translators of Syriac translations rather than
students of the original Greek.
More important still was the propagandism of the Nes-
torian Christians in the direction of Central and Eastern
Asia. Without hazarding an opinion as to the extent to
which their teaching may be the real epoch of the civilization
of the Chinese, the fact of the Uzbek Turk alphabet, itself
the prototype of the Manchu, being Syrian, is a pregnant
one. The alphabet of Palmyra is the alphabet of the wall
of China.
ASSYRIANS.
Area. — Assyria, east of the Tigris.
Language. — Known to be Semitic from the remains of it in the Arrow-headed
inscriptions of Nimrud, Khorsabad, &c., deciphered by Major Rawlinson.
Original Pagan PantJieon. — Nisroc (Assarac), Belli, Bar, Ani, Dagon, Bel,
Nebo, &c.
BABYLONIANS.
So far as they were Semitic what applies to the Assyrians
applies to the Babylonians also ; the differences between
them being matters of history and archseology rather than
strict ethnology,
Among the first if not first builders of cities, among the
first if not the first organizers of empires, the inhabitants of
both the Lower Tigris and the Lower Euphrates, were one
of the earliest influences in civilization, much in the way
of Art ; more, however, in the way of politics and com-
merce than either intellectually or morally. It is not,
BENI TERAH. 513
however, for the sake of enlarging upon these points that
the notice of the Babylonians detains us.
Gesenius has given reasons for considering the Chaldees
to have been other than a Semitic population : thus either
disconnecting the Babylonians from them, or else both from
the Phrenicians and Hebrews.
Without giving an opinion on the fact, I satisfy myself
with indicating its bearings.
The Chaldees (Khasdim), if not Semitic, were either
Persian Kurds or Armenians, from the highlands of the
Upper Tigris ; and if so, their language was Iranian, their
religion Fire-worship, and their affiliation with the la-
petidae.
As far as we may venture to distribute the outward
exponents of civilizational development amongst the Se-
mitic nations, the first application of weights and mea-
sures seems to have been Babylonian, just as the paramount
achievement of alphabetic writing is apparently the work
of the
PHCENICIANS.
Divisions. — a. Of Phoenicia (Tyre and Sidon). b. Africa (Carthaginian), c.
Spain.
Language. — Closely akin to both the Syriac and the Hebrew. Known only
from inscriptions, and two scenes in the Pocnulus of Plautus.
BENI TERAH (SONS OF TERAH).
I can think of no better collective name for that por-
tion of the Semitic nations which comprises not only the
Jews, but those other tribes which, allied in blood, though
separated, by belief, are necessary to be noticed in order
to give the more important Hebrew nation its due posi-
tion, than the one at the head of this section ; Terah, the
father of Abraham, being the eponymus.
i. i.
514 SEMITIC ATLANTIC^!.
AMMONITES (BENI AMMON).
Habits. — Agricultural.
Locality. — East of the Israelites, on the north. Conterminous with, and closely
allied to —
THE MOABITES (BENI MOAB).
Habits. — Pastoral.
Locality. — East of the Israelites on the south.
Chief deity. — Chemosh.
The Moabites and Ammonites were, probably, transi-
tional between the Hebrews and the Syrians; the next
families being transitional between the Hebrews and the
Arabs.
ISHMAELITES (BENI ISHMAEL.)
Locality. — Probably migratory tribes on the frontier of the Desert.
EDOMITES.
Area. — From the Dead to the Red Sea.
Habits. — Partly pastoral, partly commercial and industrial.
BENI ISRAEL (HEBREWS, THE TWELVE TRIBES).
Area. — Palestine.
Divisions. — 1. Samaritans (The Ten Tribes).
2. Jews (the tribes of Judah and Benjamin).
SAMARITANS.
Divisions. — 1. Samaritans Proper. 2. Galileans.
Canonical books. — The Pentateuch.
Alphabet. — A nearer approach to the Phoenician than the Jewish, and probably
an older form.
JEra. — National existence terminated A.D. 721. Since then either extinct or
incorporated. Equivocal remains in the neighbourhood of Nablous.
JEWS.
Mra. — National existence terminated, A.D. 89. Since then dispersed, but not
incorporated.
Physical Conformation. — Differing from that of the Arab in a. greater mas-
siveness of frame ; b. thicker lips ; c. nose more frequently aquiline ; d. cranium
of greater capacity.
Intellectual culture. — Preeminently early, and preeminently continuous, ije.
from the time of the Prophets to that of the Rabbinical writers of the Middle Ages,
and from these to the present moment ; in the latter case the medium generally
being languages other than the Hebrew, i.e. those of the respective countries of
the different writers.
Moral influence. — 1. As manifested by Jewish writers of modern Europe,
identified with that of the literature of the particular country which produced it.
ARABS. 515
2. As manifested by the Rabbinical writers anterior to the revival of litera-
ture, and subsequent to the dispersion, limited, or nearly limited, to the Semitic
nations.
3. As manifested in the evolution of monotheistic creeds co-extensive with o.
Judaism Proper. 6. Christianity, c. Mahometanism.
ARABS.
Physical conformation. — Face, oval ; forehead, vaulted ; nose, straight or aqui-
line ; lips, thin, even when thick not projecting ; hair, wavy or curled ; com-
plexion, various shades of brown ; limbs, spare.
With the Arab of Africa, the colour is sometimes nearly black, the frame
more massive, and limbs more fleshy than in the Peninsula.
Religion. — Originally Sabasanism ; since the Hejirah, Mahometanism.
Alphabets. — 1. That of the Koran, based on the Cufic forms of the Syriac. 2.
That of the Himyarite inscriptions, akin to the .ZEthiopic.
Languages. — 1. Arabic Proper. — A. Ancient — of the Koran. B. Modern —
of a. The greater part of the Arabian peninsula. b. Syria, c. .ZEgypt. d. West-
ern Africa.
2. Himyaritic Arab. — a. Ancient — of the Himyaritic Inscriptions. 6. Modern
=the Ekhili.
Intellectual culture. — Later in origin than that of either the Jews or Syrians.
Less continuous than that of the former.
Moral influence. — 1 . As manifested by the non-religious portion of the
Arabic literature, considerable in amount and diffused in area.
2. As manifested in the propagation of a creed, co-extensive with Maho-
metanism— the religion of many sections of the Mongolidse and Atlantidae, but
of none of the lapetidae.
The remarks upon the extent to which Syria has been
one of the intellectual influences of the world, anticipated
the notice that would otherwise have been required for
Arabia.
The love of learning which appreciated, and the zeal
which diffused the valuable sections of Greek science and
philosophy have taken the garb of the power of originating;
the extent to which this latter was the case, even in the
departments most generally admitted to have been de-
veloped by Arabian cultivation, being by no means ascer-
tained.
In the way of minute ethnology, the spread of the Arabs
has engendered numerous complications ; though the facts
of a nation speaking the Arabic language, and exhibiting
516 SEMITIC ATLANTIDJG.
an Arabic physiognomy are primd facie evidence of Arab
extraction, they are anything but conclusive. Thus, the
extent to which the old .^Egyptian stock may still survive
in ./Egypt has been indicated in the notice of the Copts,
although the Coptic language has ceased to be spoken.
Here, however, as the physical appearance bore a marked
difference, the recognition of a Copt population was safe.
Perhaps the same might have been done in Syria, where
there is special testimony to the two separate ranges of
Lebanon and the Amanus retaining remnants of the original
Syrian. I do not, however, know the evidence on which
the statements rest ; indeed, in order to be conclusive, it
would require to be of a very peculiar kind.
Physical form would not be likely to supply any evidence
at all, since no one can say how an Arab naturalized in
Syria would differ from an absolute Syrian.
Language, too, if only used as the language of religion,
would be inconclusive ; since the Syriac being the tongue
of the Nestorian Christians, might be retained by even an
Arab population, if previously Christianized.
Again, the same intermixture which a certain amount of
the Arab stock has undergone in combining with Coptic,
Syriac, and other imperfectly-incorporated populations,
occurs in the history of the primitive, ante-Mahometan
religion of Arabia. Without, at present, being enabled to
separate the Mahometan, Christian, and other elements
from the anomalous creeds of the Yezids, as described by
Layard ; of the Mendajaha, of Chesney ; and, perhaps, of
the Druses, as well, it is nearly certain that Sabaeanism
is the oldest element in them all. The ground, however,
here is full of ethnological problems.
The immigrant Arabs of Africa may be viewed under
four aspects : —
^ETHIOPIANS. 517
1. In respect to their geographical distribution. — a. Of
^Egypt. b. Nubia, c. Dongola. d. Mauritania, e. The
Northern and Middle Sahara, f. The Southern Sahara.
2. In respect to their origin. — a. Arabs direct from
Arabia. b. Arabs from tribes already occupants of Africa.
3. In respect to their habits. — a. Beduins, or wandering,
pastoral, or predatory Arabs, b. Settled agricultural
Arabs.
4. In respect to the purity or intermixture of blood. —
From what I collect from Prichard, purity of blood is the
rule rather than the exception ; the chief Africans by
which it is crossed being those of the Tuarick division of
the Amazirgh. The Southern Sahara, to the north of the
Niger and the Sahara, and the ethnological frontier of the
Woloff, Mandingo, Fulah, Sungai, and Howssa Negroes
form the great area of the Arab and Tuarick intermixture.
ETHIOPIANS.
A rea. — Abyssinia.
Physical condition of area. — An elevated table-land, or system of terraces —
disconnected from the other portions of the Semitic area by the Red Sea (geo-
graphically), and by the Nubian and Egyptian areas (ethnologically).
Division, Languages, and Religion. — 1. Tigre, of the province of Tigre, speaking
a language generally admitted to be derived from the Gheez or ancient Ethiopia.
Christians.
2. Amharic Ethiopians of South-western Abyssinia, speaking a language not
generally admitted to be derived from the Gheez, but still so like the Tigre as
most probably to be so descended. Christians.
3. The Gafat Ethiopians, Pagans, nearly displaced by the Gallas, but whose
'anguage is considered to be allied to the Amharic.
Alpliabet of the Christian ^Ethiopians.— Written from left to right, not (like the
Syriac, Hebrew, and Arabic) from right to left. Closely allied to the Himyaritic
Arabian of the inscriptions.
Antiquities. — Chiefly of the ancient Gheez capital, Axum.
The ethnology of the Semitic Abyssinians has the fol-
lowing complications.
1. The Gheez language is too closely allied to the
Arabic and Hebrew to lead to the belief that it is abori-
518 SEMITIC ATLANTIC^.
ginal, *. e. other than of comparatively recent intro-
duction.
2. The Amharic, on the other hand, and, a fortiori, the
Gafat, have too many African elements to lead to the belief
that the first Semitic immigration was that which intro-
duced the Tigre.
The hypothesis, which would reconcile these discre-
pancies, would be —
That the Gafat represented a primary, the Tigre a
secondary migration ; and this is much the same view
which was taken concerning the relations between the
island of Sumatra and the Peninsula of Malacca. It is
also one which arises from the circumstance of the Isthmus
of Suez being only one of the passages from Asia to
Africa — the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb being the second.
Hence, the present classification is provisional, since if
we admit the Gafat to be primarily Semitic, the Tigre to
represent a secondary influx of population, and the Amharic
to be fundamentally the same as the Gafat, only containing
a greater admixture of the Gheez, we have a class into
which other sections of the Abyssinian populations should
be admitted ; e.g. the Agows, truly considered by Dr. Beke
to be the aborigines of ^thiopic Africa.
In order to exhibit in full the elements of the ethnology
of the Semitic class, notice must be taken of —
1. The ffittites, Hivites, &c. — The earlier inhabitants of
Palestine, Canaanitish idolaters, geographically, but not
genealogically, Semitic.
2. The Philistines. — Uncircumcised idolaters, of which a
portion remained unconquered at and beyond the date of
the Jewish Captivity. Language, probably unintelligible
to the Hebrews ; on the other hand, they seem to have been
closely related to the Phoenicians — facts not easily reconciled.
MALAGASI. 519
3. Solyml. — Cilicians. The question involved in the
Semitic character of the Solymi, is the difficult question as
to the north-western frontier of the Semitic area.
4. Elamites. — These have the same import with the
Solymi, mutatis mutandis, i.e. in the consideration of the
south-eastern Semitic frontier.
5. Cyprians. — Almost certainly Semitic; probably Phoe-
nician.
6. Cappadocians. — Stated by Strabo to have been white
Syrians.
Throughout the whole of the present volume the complex
question of descent, or the relation between the people of
antiquity and the modern populations of the same area is
only indicated. Truly a part of ethnology, it is the one
most liable to extreme differences of opinion, as well as the
one which involves the most subtle and minute criticism.
*****
THE MALAGASI.
Locality. — Madagascar.
Physical Conformation. — Generally speaking, African rather than Amphinesian ;
in some cases Amphinesian rather than African.
Language. — Amphinesian rather than African.
Religion. — Feticism.
Name of one of tlte Malagasi Deities. — Vintana. Compare this with the
Australian Wandong.
The Malagasi have already been enumerated amongst
the Oceanic Mongolitlse. Why were they, then, only men-
tioned by name, and why do they now find a place at the
end of the Atlantidse ? The reason lies in the antagonism
between the evidence of their language and the evidence of
their physical conformation ; the first pointing exclusively
towards Malacca, the latter partly towards Malacca and
partly towards the opposite coast of Africa. The phseuo-
inenon of intermixture is, in this case, so likely, that the
doctrine that the Malagasi are Africans speaking a Malay
520 SEMITIC ATLANTIC.
language, or, at least, that there is a strong African inter-
mixture, almost forces itself upon the investigator.
There is nothing, however, in what has hitherto been
noticed which induces me to admit any African element at
all ; since after considerable reflection and hesitation I have
come to the conclusion that the differences in physical form,
as described by many excellent observers, are not greater
than those which occur within the pale of the Amphinesian
populations themselves.
On the other hand it is difficult to imagine that the first
human pair who set foot in Madagascar, were from beyond
India rather than from the coasts of Mozambique, or Zan-
zibar. To which must be added the tradition — perhaps we
may say the existence — of the Vazimbers.
Drury writes that in his time the interior of the island
was inhabited by undersized Negroes, called Verzimbers.
Of these — as living occupants — no trace now remains.
Instead thereof, the Hovas of the Vazimber localities pay a
superstitious reverence to certain upright stones, the graves
of the Vazimbers.
This, in my mind, points towards Africa as the birth
place of the Madagascar aborigines ; and considering the
degree to which the extent of their extermination is evidence
of physical inferiority, combined with what has been said
concerning the original northward extension of the Hotten-
tots, it is, on the whole, more probable that such abori-
gines— provided they really existed at all — were of the
stock of the Koranas, or Gonaquas, rather than of the
Koosas or Bechuanas, i.e. Hottentot rather than Kaffre.
*****
Are all the alphabets, that have ever been used, referable
to one single prototype, as their ultimate original, or has
the process of analysing a language into its elementary
PROTOTYPE OF ALPHABETS. 521
articulations, and expressing these by symbols, been gone
through more than once ? The answer to this is, partially
a measure of the intellectual influence of the Semitic
nations. Great would be that influence, even if only the
Greeks and Romans had adopted the alphabet of the
Phoenicians. How much greater if the world at large had
done so.
The doctrine of a single prototype is the most probable.
For the present alphabets of Europe the investigation is
plain enough — indeed they are all so undeniably of either
Greek or Roman origin, that doubt upon the matter is out
of the question.
For others, however, the affiliation is less clear; and
lest the extent to which many of them differ from each
other, as well as from their assumed original, be overvalued,
the following principles of criticism are suggested.
1. That considering the undeniable differences in form,
order, number, and direction of writing between alphabets
so undeniably connected as (say) the Hebrew, and (say)
the English, no objections to the doctrine of a common
origin is to be taken from mere points of dissimilarity in
any of the above-named characters.
2. That, considering the probability that such alphabets
as the Hieroglyphic and Arrow-headed are just as likely to
be artificial derivations from some simpler ones — either in
way of cypher alphabets, or in way that the illuminated let-
ters of the Middle Ages differ from common manuscript — no
arguments in favour of their antiquity are to be drawn from
their undoubted peculiarity of structure.
3. That an alphabet, however much it may differ from
others in the arrangement of the lines and points which
form its letters, is not to be considered original if it has
been framed within the literary period, and with a know-
522 SEMITIC ATLANTIC.
ledge of previous ones — the idea of the analysis of a sen-
tence into words, and of words into elementary articulations,
being the really great achievement in the invention of an
alphabet, and this, in such cases, not being original.
4. That the question of the affiliation or originality of
alphabets be considered not only with a view to the par-
ticular alphabet, but with a due recognition of the fact
that, taking the world at large, the derivation of one
alphabet from another, rather than the repetition of the
very remarkable process of the analysis of words, and
the symbolization of their articulate elements, is the rule,
and that the apparent instances of the reverse are the
exceptions.
With these, as preliminaries, we may enumerate the
alphabets which most put on the garb of original inven-
tions, and most appear to invalidate the doctrine that
alphabetic writing was but once, and once for all, invented.
1. 2. The hieroglyphic and arrow-headed* modes of
writing — Subject to Rule 2.
Fig. 16.
:U
v
a
3. The Runes of the Gothic nations. — Deficient in proof
of antiquity, not remarkably unlike the older Greek charac-
ters, and not originating in either an age or country where
alphabets that might serve as models were inaccessible.
* For the meaning of this, see the note at the end of the volume.
PROTOTYPE OF ALPHABETS. 523
4. The Irish Ogham. — Shown to be of a Fig 17
very limited antiquity — See two papers of «
Professor C. Graves on the subject.
5. 6. Georgian and Armenian. — Not ge-
nerally considered to be derivations from the %
Syriac, only from the differences of their cha-
racters ; a ground of separation subject to
the application of Rule 1.
7. The alphabets of Southern India. — Sub-
ject to Rule 1 ;
8. The alphabets of Northern India. —
Subject to Rule 1 ; except so far as they
rest upon the two following assumptions :
— 1st, That portions of the Hindu literature
(the Vedas) are of an antiquity so remote
as to be previous to either the invention or
the diffusion of the first Semitic alphabet.
2d, That an Indian alphabet of equal anti-
quity, was necessary to embody them.
Admitting the latter of these two assump-
tions, I agree with those who doubt the
first ; and so far from inferring the existence
of an ancient alphabet from the Vedaic writ-
ings, am inclined to infer a recent date for
the Vedaic writings from the absence of an
undeniably old and original alphabet.
9. The original alphabets of the Malays of ^J
Sumatra, Celebes, the Philippines, &c. — Sub-
ject to Rules 1 and 4. Vl/
10. The Tuarick alphabet of Oudney and 11
Richardson. — So deficient in signs of anti-
quity as to come under Rule 3. *.* %*
* For the powers of this alphabet, see the note at the end of the volume.
524 SEMITIC ATLANTIC.
11. 12. The * Cherokee and Vei Alphabets — Manifestly
subject to Rule 3.
Fig. 18.
II.
«)ET» Itf
2. ST'vy/iz T* o»/iwo.0 DRIEST
,TS>
£si
O'/IWO-T DCT CFOPO^T O'A"
14. jTA0 Chinese and its derivatives. — It is chiefly on the
strength of Rule 4, taken along with the general unsatis-
factory character of the evidence as to the antiquity of the
Chinese civilization, that I allow no greater claims to origi-
nality to this than to any of the preceding alphabets.
Upon the whole, it may safely be said that no known
alphabet, except the Semitic, has any very strong claims to
be considered as an original and independent invention, by
any one who admits the validity of the four foregoing rules,
and recognizes the full difficulty and complexity of the
notation of sounds addressed to the ear, by lines and points
addressed to the eye.
*****
The accumulation of climatologic influences, and the
angle of the line of migration. — Other conditions being
equal, why do two tribes under the same degree of latitude
differ ? e. a. Why are not all tribes under the equator like
the Negro of the Niger, and vice versa ?
Without venturing upon the enumeration of all the
elements of this difference, I will indicate one, assuming
only that the climatological influences of a certain degree
* For the meaning of this, see the note at the end of the volume.
ACCUMULATION OF INFLUENCES. 525
of latitude have some effect, and that some effect must be
the result of the force in question. I call it the accumulation
of climatologic influences.
Let a certain locality under a given degree of latitude
(say the west-coast of Africa, under the equator) be peo-
pled by a line of population migrating from Denmark, under
one supposition, and from Bombay, under another, the
line of migration being, for convenience sake, supposed to
be a straight one.
From Denmark, such a line, at its junction with the
point in question (say the mouth of the Gaboon River),
would form with the equinoctial line, and with each inter-
mediate degree of latitude, a right one.
From Denmark, the angle would be, a very acute one.
Now, just as the angle formed by the line of latitude
and the line of migration is acute, the approach made by a
moving population towards any particular point under that
line (of latitude) is gradual, and in proportion as such an
approach is gradual, the number of generations over which
a condition of climate, like that of the final point, has been
acting is increased ; and in this way its influences become
accumulated.
Thus, assuming Bombay to be the original cradle of our
species —
The Gaboon Negro is the descendant of ancestors who,
before they reached their present abode, had moved in a
line lying almost wholly within the tropics ; whereas —
The American of Quito, is the descendant of ancestors
who passed through the tropics by the shortest cut (i. e. at
nearly a right angle with the equator), themselves descended
from progenitors upon whom the influences of the several
North-American, Arctic, and Siberian climates had been at
work.
526 SEMITIC ATLANTIC^.
In the latter case how great have been the changes and
how rapid the transitions from the conditions of one latitude
to another ; how different, too, the effects upon a series of
generations moving along a line a thousand miles long, from
north to south, from those upon a stream of population
propagated along an equal distance east and west.
The former takes them through half the latitudes of the
world. The latter keeps them within a single zone — Arctic,
Equatorial, or temperate, as the case may be, the climato-
logic influences seconding, instead of counteracting those of
blood, and that in a ratio progressing geometrically.
DIVISIONS.
A. — OCCIDENTAL IAPETID^E.
B. — INDC-GERMANJC IAPETIDJE.
THIS is the section of our species which is the best
known, and which has been the earliest described. Pre-
eminently lying within the department of the historian and
archaeologist, the natural historical questions connected with
it, are those of the minute rather than the systematic
ethnographist.
Thus — the information, which would be so valuable in
Africa or America, as to the general relations of a par-
ticular population, is useless here. All such facts are
known ; and in dealing with areas like Britain, or Italy,
we ask — not to what great primary class the Englishman
or the Italian belongs, but the subtler questions as to the
differentiae of their mental and physical characteristics, or
the amount of foreign intermixture which in one case
traverses the original Saxon, and in the other the primitive
Roman stock — each stock itself being a complex product.
Ethnology of this sort has its proper exposition in a
series of monographs, rather than in a work like the
present.
So thoroughly are the lapetidse, populations who have
encroached upon the frontiers of others rather than admitted
encroachments on their own, that, with the exception of the
Arab dominion in Spain, which has not, and the Turk and
528 IAPETID.E.
Majiar in Rumelia and Hungary, which have lasted till our
own times, there is no instance of their permanent displace-
ment by either Mongolidse or Atlantidse of any sort.
Within their own pale, the Celts were the encroaching
family of the oldest, the Romans of the next oldest, and the
Anglo-Saxons and Slavonians of the recent periods of
history.
A.
OCCIDENTAL
Languages. — Separated from the common mother-tongue subsequent to the evo-
lution of the persons of verbs, but anterior to the evolution of the cases of nouns.
Evidently agglutinate.
Here, as with the Atlantidse, we begin with an extreme,
rather than a transitional division of the stock.
CELTS (KELTS).
Name. — Either native, Ligurian, or Iberian. In its limited sense confined to
the southern Gauls. Possibly to some of the Iberians as well. At present, a ge-
neralterm comprizing populations very different from the original Keltae (KsXra/).
And adopted by the Greeks rather than the Romans.
Present area. — Brittany, Wales, the Highlands of Scotland, the Isle of Man,
Ireland. — In Brittany it is doubtful whether the Keltic occupancy represent original
distribution or immigration.
Original area. — a. Undoubted. — The present the Scottish Lowlands, England,
Gaul north of the Loire (there or thereabouts), and parts of Switzerland.
1). Probable. — Parts of Baden, and Bavaria, Northern Italy. In this latter
case it is doubtful whether the Keltic occupancy represent original distribution or
immigration.
o. Accredited (either in way of original distribution or migration). — The Tyrol
(Taurisci), Illyria (Scordisci), Asia Minor (the Galatians), Spain (the Celt-
Iberians), Jutland (Cimbri).
Frontier. — Preeminently receding ; the encroaching populations being (1st)
Roman, (2nd) Gothic.
Conterminous with — a. in the original area ; Iberians, Italians, German Goths.
b. in the present; English Goths, and French.
Cliief divisions. — 1. Kelts of Gaul, falling into, a. The proper Celtae. b. The
Belgae. Extinct (?) or incorporate.
2. British Kelts, falling into, a. The Cambrians. 6. The Picts. The latter
either extinct or incorporate.
3. Gaels, a. Scotch Gaels, b. Irish Gaels, c, Manxmen, or Gaelic Kelts
of the Isle of Man.
4. The Cisalpine Kelts of Northern Italy.
5. The Ligurians (?) extended from the Etruscan to the Iberian frontier.
Sub-divisions (more or less artificial) of tltc Cambrian Kelts. — a. Cumbrians of
M M
330 OCCIDENTAL IAPETHLE.
the kingdom of Strath-Clyde. I. Cymry of North Wales, c. Cymry of South
Wales, d. Cornish Kelts.
Philological Classification of the known Keltic languages. —
Keltic Stock.
Cambrian (British) Branch. Gaelic Branch.
Welsh. Cornish. Armorican. Scotch Gaelic. Irish Gaelic. Manx.
Descent. — From the ancient tribes of Ireland, Scotland, England, Gaul (north
of the Loire, and west of the Rhine), Helvetia, and the Agri Decumates ( ? ).
The Cimbri* and Teutones.
Physical conformation. — Preeminently (according to Retzius) dolikhokephalic.
Cheekbones, prominent ; complexion, referable to —
a. The Silurian type. — Eyes and hair, black ; complexion, dark, with a ruddy
tinge ; chiefly found in South Wales.
b. The Hibernian type. — Eyes, grey ; hair, yellowish, red, or sandy ; com-
plexion, light.
Pantheon. — Teutates, Taranis, Hesus, Belenus (Belis), Abellio, Belatucadrus,
Attis, Aufaniae (Goddesses), Aventia, Bacurdus, Camulus, Onuava, Ogmius,
Nehalunnia, Dusius (the Deuce), Salivae (Sylphs) — MitJtridates vol. iii.
To this, add the phaenomena involved in the system of a. The Druids. b. The
Bards, c. The monumental remains of the character of Stonehenge=./Wae«/j»r=:
long stones.
Antiquities. — Coins, images, tumuli, and their contents, Mdenhir.
Habits. — In southern and central Gaul, and in southern and central England,
at least, agricultural and industrial. On the coast, maritime.
Probable line of population. — To Ireland from the nearest part of Scotland, to
Scotland from England, to England from the parts about Calais and Dunkirk.
This last observation has been made in order to guard
against any false impression arising from the statement of
Bede that the Scots came from Ireland. The evidence of
this is, at best, but a tradition, apparently founded upon
an inaccurate etymology. Even if true, it would apply
only to some secondary migration, and be subject to the
criticism applied to the relations between the Island of
Sumatra, and the Peninsula of Malacca, as Malay areas.
* Reasons in favour of the Cimbri and Teutones, being simply Gauls of Gallia,
have been published by the present writer in the Transactions of the Philological
Society.
B.
INDO-GERMANIC lAPETID^E.
Languages. — Separated from the common mother-tongue subsequent to the
evolution of the cases of nouns. Less evidently agglutinate than the Keltic.
The previous and the forthcoming groups are generally
placed in one and the same class — that class being called
Indo-European. The material fact of the Kelts having
broken-off from the mother-stock at an appreciably early
stage in the evolution of the common language, has led the
present writer to refine upon the usual arrangement.
To prove that the Kelts and Goths are related, is a very
different matter from proving that their relationship is
within a certain degree.
The Indo-Germanic lapetidse fall into two classes —
1. The European ; 2. The Iranian Indo-Germans.
I.
EUROPEAN INDO-GERMANS.
Of this class the sub-divisions are three — 1. The Gothic.
2. The Sarmatian. 3. The Mediterranean Indo Germans.
1.
GOTHS.
Physical conformation. — a. Blue eyes, flaxen hair, ruddy complexion, smooth
skin, fleshy limbs.
b. Eyes, gray, dark, or hazel ; hair, brown or black ; complexion, sallow or
swarthy ; bulk, varied.
Area. — Preeminently encroaching.
a. Original. — Western Germany, Denmark(P), southern part of Scandinavia(P).
b. Present. — Germany and Scandinavia in general, Switzerland, Holland, Bel-
gium, Great Britain and Ireland, the United States of America, Canada Australia.
Descent. — From the Germans of that part of the ancient Germania which lay
M M 2
532 INDO-GERMANIC IAPETID.E.
(there or thereabouts) between the rivers Rhine and Elbe. — Batavi, Chamavi,
Caninifates, Frisii, Chauci, Angrivarii, Bructeri, Catti, Cherusci, Fosi, Marco-
innini i, &c.
Primary Divisions. — a. Teutons, b. Scandinavians.
a.
TEUTONS.
Area. — Germany.
Language. — Without a middle (or passive voice) and with the definite article
separate from and preceding its noun.
Primary divisions. — «. Mceso-Goths. /3. High Germans. y. Low Germans.
a.
MCESO-GOTHS.
Original area. — The water-system of the Upper Danube, probably parts of Ba-
varia and Thuringian Saxony.
Area in the third and fourth centuries. — The Roman province of Mcesia.
Language. — Partially preserved in the Translation of the Scriptures, by Ulphi-
las, in the reign of Valens.
Divisions. — 1 . Ostrogoths ( =J£as£-Goths), of which the royal line was that of
the Amalungs. 2. Visi-Goths (= West-Goths) ; of which the royal line was that
of the Baltungs.
Current names. — Probably not given till after the occupation of the country by
the Getae.
Native names. — Probably Grutungs and Tervings (Thuringians).
Reasons for believing that the so-called Goths of the
Lower Danube were not indigenous to the country in which
we find them in the reign of Valens, that they were in no
wise descendants of the Getae, and that they were not
known by the name Goth until they took possession of the
country of the Getae, are given in the Transactions of the
British Association for 1849, and in The English Language
of the present writer.
He now arrives at their probable home in Germany by
the method of exclusion, i.e. by determining what portions
of Germany were most certainly occupied by %<w-Mceso-
Gothic populations.
These he places in the country, drained by the northern
feeders of the Upper Danube, believing that from this point
the migration took place by the waters of the Danube
rather than by land.
GOTHS. 533
The two following facts are the chief reasons for this
latter view : —
1. Their subsequent maritime career on the Euxine.
2. Their wow-occurrence at intermediate points. — The
first place whereat we hear of them is Marcianopolis, as far
east as the vicinity of the Euxine. From this they after-
wards move westward, i.e. towards Rome and Spain.
0.
HIGH GERMANS.
Area. — Hesse and parts of Thuringia and Bavaria ; conterminous (though by
frontiers hitherto imperfectly investigated) with the Kelts of the Upper Rhine,
the Slavonians of the Upper Elbe, and the original area of the Moaso-Goths.
Language. — Forming the plurals of nouns in -» rather than in -s, and those of
verbs in -«, -»», or -nt, rather than in -th (dh).
Hiyli Germans of the Roman period. — Alemanni, Suevi (?), Burgundians (?).
The spread of the Teutonic populations, as contrasted
with the Keltic, Slavonic, and Roman, in general, com-
bined with the numerous displacements of particular por-
tions of the German tribes themselves, makes the question
of descent excessively complicated. Perhaps the best pre-
sent representatives of the High-Germanic division are the
modern —
HESSIANS.
Locality. — Hesse, conterminous with the Franks, Saxons, and Thuringians.
Descent. — The Catti.
And after these the —
THURINGIANS.
Area. — Bounded, east and west, by the rivers Werra and Saal, the hitter a
Slavono-Germanic limit. In its southern extension, probably, passing into some
language representing the Moeso-Gothic.
Conterminous with the Hessians on the west, either a na-
tion, or a confederacy, and transitional between the High
and Low Germans ; the —
FRANKS.
Language.— More Dutch than Saxon or Frisian, and (perhaps) more High
German than Dutch.
Area.— Indeterminate, but ethnologically bounded by those of the Batavians,
534 INDO-GERMANIC IAPETID.E.
Old Saxons, and High Germans. Encroaching ; being that of the population
which either displaced or incorporated the Old and the Hanoverian Saxons, as
well as the greater part of the Slavonians of the Elbe.
Descent. — Usipetes, Ripuarii, Sicambri.
•y.
LOW GERMANS.
Languages. — With the plural forms generally ending in -a, or -s rather than -«.
Area. — The Lower Rhine, Ems, Weser ; the Elbe near its mouth.
Divisions. — 1. Batavians. 2. Saxons. 3. Frisians.
BATAVIANS.
Locality. —Holland minus Friesland.
Language. — Low German, with the plurals ending in - n, rather than -*, -a, or -r.
Descent. — From the Batavi, Chamavi, Tubantes, Salii (?), Caninifates.
SAXONS.
Language. — Forming the infinitive mood in -an (not in -a), certain plurals in
-as (not in -n), and the plural of the present tense in -\> (not in -«, or -a).
Divisions. — 1. Nordalbingians (=north of the Elbe) of Holstein. Most pro-
bably Saxons. Extinct, or incorporated.
2. Saxons of Hanover. — Extinct, or incorporated in Germany. The Anglo-
Saxons of England.
3. Saxons of Osnaburg and Westphalia. — Extinct or incorporated. Descendants
of the Cherusci.
FRISIANS.
Language. — Low German, with the infinitives ending in -a.
Physical appearance. — Preeminently of the first type.
Divisions and localities. — 1. West Frisians, of Friesland and Groningen ; the
latter speaking the Dutch of Holland. Descendants of the Frisii.
2. East Frisians of East Friesland, Oldenburg, and Hanover.
Language. — Except in Saterland, replaced by the German. Descent from the
Chauci.
3. North Frisians of Heligoland, and the parts about Husum and Bredsted, in
Sleswick.
The date of the occupancy of the North Frisians is un-
certain. Probably, they are emigrants from Hanoverian
Friesland rather than aborigines.
The Frisian is the most unmixed, and typical portion of
the Gothic population. It is also transitional between the
Teutons and the —
b.
SCANDINAVIANS.
Area. — Denmark and Scandinavia.
Languages. — With a middle voice, and with the definite article incorporated
SARMATIANS. 535
with, and appended to, its noun. (Thus, whilst sol=sun and bord=table, kin— the
for the masculine, and hitt=the for the neuter gender, sol-en— the sun, and bord-et
=tJte table.)
Divisions more or less artificial. — 1. Icelanders. 2. Feroe Islanders. 3. Nor-
wegians. 4. Swedes. 5. Danes.
What is the import of the differences just indicated
between the Scandinavian tongues and the Teutonic ; are
they of such slow growth as to denote a very early separa-
tion of the Dane and Swede from the Northern German, or
might they be evolved in a comparatively short space of
time ? The answer to this involves the question as to date
of the Scandinavian migration into the parts north of the
Eyder.
My own opinion is that a common mother-tongue might,
within the space of a few centuries, develop itself into the
languages represented by the present Frisian on the South,
and the Scandinavian dialects on the North respectively.
If so, the Gothic occupation of the Scandinavian area need
not amount to any very remote antiquity. Probably, I am
singular in this opinion. It will be noticed again within a
few pages.*
2.
SARMATIANS.
As this class comprises the Lithuanic as well as Slavonic
members of the so-called Indo-European class, the term
Sarmatian has been preferred to either of the more sectional
denominations.
Physical conformation.— According to Retzius, brakhykephalic rather than
dolikhokephalic, Indo-Germans. In many cases approaching the Turanian type.
Intermixture. — Turanian, arising from the so-called Tartar invasions. How
far the Tartar intermixture coincides with the brakhykephalic formation of the
cranium requires investigation.
Extent of area. — West and east from (about) 10° to (about) 40° west latitude.
From (about) 40° north latitude to (about) 60° north latitude.
Primary divisions. — 1. Lithuanians. 2. Slavonians (Slaves).
* See p. 537.
536 INDO-GERMANIC lAPETID^E.
The point most open to objection in the present section
is extent, to which the original area of the Sarmatians is
brought westwards.
a.
LITHUANIANS.
Philoloffical Divisions. — 1. Prussian (or Old Prussian). — Dialects of Samland,
Nattangen, Tolkemir — Extinct, and known only through a pater-noster and a
vocabulary of A.D. 1521, a catechism of A.D. 1545, and a pater-noster] of A.D.
1561. Spoken in West and East Prussia from (there or thereabouts) the Vis-
tula to the Pregel.
2. Lithtianic. — Spoken from the Pregel to the frontier of Courland. — Dialects of
Insterburg'and Nadrau in Prussia, and the Shamaitic dialect in Polish Lithuania.
3. Lettish. — Courland, Southern Livonia, parts of Wilna, and Witepsk. —
Dialects — numerous, i.e. for the parts about Liebau (corrupt), Mittau (pure),
Riga (pure), Dunaburg (corrupt).
Descent. — A. From nations of tribes of the Middle Ages —
a. The Galanditoe, Sudowitoe, Pomerani, Pogesani, Warniienses (Hermini,
Jarmenses), Nattangi, Barthi, Nadrovitae, Sambitse, Scalovitae.
b. Jaswingi, Pollexiani.
c. Lettones, Samogitee, Semgalli, Carsowitae.
d. Curi (Curanii), Laini (Lamonii), Lettgalli (Letti), Ydumei, Selones, — Zeuss,
pp. 674—683.
B. From the nations or tribes of classical antiquity. — The 'n*<r/«»sj of Stepha-
nus Byzantinus=the "'fifriani of Artemidorus=the Ko<r<woi of Pytheasnthe
Gothones (Guttones) of Tacitus ; the Lemovii.
.Pantheon. — Perkunos, Potrimpos, Picollos.
Native name of a certain section. — Guddon (rrGuttones).
The main points connected with the Lithuanian branch
of the Sarmatian stock are the following : —
1. Of all the lapetidse they preserved their original
paganism the longest.
2. Of all the lapetidse they have had the least influence
on the history of mankind.
3. Of all the lapetidse they speak a language nearest in
structure to the Sanskrit. It is the latter fact which has
given prominence to the Philological Divisions of so im-
portant a tongue.
Prominence, too, has been given to their relations in the
way of descent, since the denial of the existence of any
LITHUANIANS. 537
nations, other than Sarmatian, as occupants of the water-
systems of either the Vistula or the Oder, anterior to the
tenth century, notwithstanding the numerous statements as
to the occurrence of Gothic tribes in the present countries
of Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Prussia, Courland, and even
Esthonia, is a point to which I have no hesitation in com-
mitting myself; a series of papers upon the subject being
in the course of delivery and publication, for the Philo-
logical Society.
Furthermore, whoever will so far divest himself of his
prepossessions as to admit the possibility of the Jute of
Jutland, and the Goth of Gothland being something other
than Gothic in the usual sense of the term, will find that
no provisional hypothesis will explain so many of the diffi-
culties created by the conflicting evidence involved in the
terms Jute, JEote, Goth, Reid-Goth, Gaut, &c., as that of an
extension of the Lithuanian Vita, or Guttones, to the southern
parts of Sweden and to Jutland.
I say, Lithuanian Vita and Guttones, because whatever
may be the value of other supposed applications of the roots
Goth-, Jut-, and Vit-, the only families to, which any of
them have undeniably been brought home as a native
name are the Lithuanic.
Besides this, I am so far from attributing either an over-
high antiquity, or a pre-eminent independence of origin to
the Scandinavian mythology, that I see in the God Ymer,
the Finnic Yumala, and in the Fiorgyn^ the Lithuanic
PerTcunos.
Lastly, the combination k-l-m (as in Kalmar) is not
the only geographical root common to the two sides of
the Baltic, Lithuanic and Swedish.
Still, the hypothesis is, at present, little beyond a mere
suggestion.
538 INDO-GERMANIC IAPETIDJ1.
b.
SLAVONIANS.
Divisions. — A. Extent, — Chiefly philological, a. Russians. /3. Servians, y.
Illyrians. S. Tsheks. «. Poles. ?• Serbs. ?. Polabi.
B. Extinct or incorporate, but undoubtedly Slavonic. — The Slavonians of Meck-
lenburg, Brandenburg, Uckermark, Altmark, Luneburg, Holstein, &c.
0. — Extinct or incorporate, but not undoubted Slavonic. — The following nations
of antiquity. — 1. Scoloti (SxoXarw), Getse, Daci, Thracians, Pannonians, original
inhabitants of Noricum and Dalmatia, Crobyzi (whence Chrobati and Cro-
atian), &c.
Descent. — a. From nations and tribes mentioned by the authors of Classical An-
tiquity.— Thracians (?), Getse (?), Daci (?), Pannonii (?), lazyges, Limigantes,
Quadi, Ligii (Lekhs= Poles), Silingae, Bastarnae, Suardones, Rugii, Buri, Sciri,
Turcilingi, Venedae, &c.
b. From nations and tribes mentioned by Slavonic autliors. — Morawa (Moravi-
ans), Czeczi (Bohemians), Chorwati bjelii (= White Croatians),'Serb', Chorutane
(Carantanians), Ljachowe (Lekhs^Poles), Luticzi, Masowszane (Masovians),
Pomoranje (Pomeranians), Derewljane, Poloczane (probably Lithuanians),
Sjewera, Radimeczi, Wjaticzi. — Zeuss.
Earliest introduction of Christianity. — The eighth century.
Pagan Pantheon. — a. Of the Middle Age writers. — Veli-bog= White God,
Czerne-bog (Tshernibog) =: Black God, Perown, Sviatowit (Swantevit), Radegast,
Vitislav, Krasopani, Pogwist, Jessa, Laicon, Nia, Marzana, Zievonia, Lelus,
Potetus, Liadu, Djedijielia, Pogoda.
b. Oft/ie Classical writers. — Zamolxis, Gebeleixis (?).
a.
RUSSIANS.
Original area.— Roughly speaking, the eastern part of the water-system of
the Dnieper.
Conterminous with— a. Lithuanians on the Middle Pripet, and Upper Duna
(i.e. in Mensk and Viteskp). 6. Ugrians along the Valdai range, and on the
Oka. c. Ugrians, Turks, or Caucasian, south-east.
Dialects. — a. Russian Proper, b. Susdaliau, spoken in the government of Mos-
cow, c. Olonetz. d. Malo- Russian (Little Russian) of the Ukraine, probably
passing into the e. Russniak of Bukowina, Lodomir, and Gallicia. f. and the
White Russian of Volhynia.
A Iphabets. — Derived directly from the Old Slavonic, indirectly from the
Greek.
Christianity.— Greek Church. Introduced between A.D. 980, and A.D. 1015.
(L
SERVIANS.
Divisions. — 1. Servians of Servia, Slavonia, Transylvania, and New Servia
(a Russian colony on the Dnieper, settled A.D. 1754).* 2. Bosniaksof Bosnia and
Mithridates. Vol. iii. p. 639.
SLAVONIANS. 539
Herzegovina (Mahometans). 3. Dalmatians, Ragusans, and Montenegriners of
Monte Negro, conterminous with the Albanians.
Alphabet. — Old Slavonic, of Cyrillus and Methodius for Servia. Glagolitic for
Dalmatia. Both of Greek origin.
Christianity. — Greek Church. Introduced anterior to 800 A.D. Old Slavonic,
the church language.
y.
ILLYRIANS.
Divisions. — a. Croatian. 6. Slovenzi of Carinthia, Carniola, Steyermark,
South-western Hungary.
A IpJiabet. — Originally of Greek origin, or Glagolitic. Replaced by the Ro-
man.
'Christianity. — Originally of the Greek Church ; replaced by Romanism.
S.
TSHEKS.
Native name. — Tshekh (Czech) —foremost (?).
Descent. — The Western Dad (=zCzeck ?).
Divisions. — a. The Czesky Gazyk=Tshekh language of Bohemia, b. The
Mora wsky Gazyk= Moravian language of Moravia, c. SI o vac, Upper Hungary,
i.e. the water-systems of the rivers Waag and Gran.
Alphabet. — Roman.
Christianity. — Roman Catholic, introduced in the ninth century.
t.
POLES.
Philological divisions. — 1. Of Poland, Posen, and parts of Lithuania and
Gallicia.
2. -Kussulic. — a. Of West Prussia, b. Pomerania.
Descent. — From the Lygii of Tacitus.
A Ipliabets. — Roman .
Christianity. — Roman Catholic and Protestant.
Native name of at least one tribe — Lekh, the term Pole, being the geographical
rather than ethnological, and = level plains.
?•
SERBS.
Localities' and divisions.— a. The Sserske (a native name) of Lower, b. The
Srbie (do) of Upper, Lusatia.
Partial descent. — The Silingi.
?.
POLABIC SLAVONIANS.
The word po=on, and Labe=Elle, so that the Polabic
Slavonians means the Slavonians on the Elbe. The im-
portance of this section arises from the fact that at the
time of Charlemagne they were, with the exception of the
540 INDO-GEKMANIC IAPETID.E.
tract occupied by the Saxons of Holstein, and the north-
west part of Hanover, not only the occupants of Mecklen-
burg, and the parts east of that river, but of Lauenburg,
Luneburg, Altmark, and a vast section of Germany to the
west of it.
To suppose that the Slavonic frontier was not equally
extended westwards, in the eighth, seventh, sixth, fifth,
fourth, third, second, or first centuries, is, in the first
instance, to admit the accuracy of an author like Tacitus.
On the other hand, however, it involves the assumption
of so vast an amount of migration, displacement, and other
unlikely ethnological processes, that a writer who weighs
conflicting probabilities is led to the conclusion that a great
historian is more likely to be wrong in the ethnology of
countries like Prussia and Poland — countries which could
be known to Tacitus only as the interior of Africa can be
known to Mr. Hallam or Macaulay — than that, between
A.D. 100, and 900, a whole Gothic population, extending
from the Niemen to the Elbe, should have been replaced
by a Slavonic one, without leaving a single trace of its
existence in any intermediate locality ; the same encroach-
ing Slavonians, when we first find them mentioned by cotem-
porary historians, being themselves in a state of displace-
ment by the same previously-displaced Germans.
This, however, is but a very general and superficial
view of the difficulties that attend the belief that the
Oder and Vistula were originally German. Nevertheless,
it is all that room can be found for here.
As to the tribes themselves the chief were —
The Wagrians. — Occupants of the country between the
Trave and the upper portion of the southern branch of the
Eyder.
The Polabi. — Conterminal with the Wagrians and the
SLAVONIANS. 541
Saxons of Sturmar, from whom they were separated by
the river Bille.
The Obodriti. — This is a generic rather than a specific
term. It means, however, the tribes between the Trave
and the Warnow ; chiefly along the coast. Zeuss makes
Schwerin their most inland locality.
Varnahl. — This is the form which the name takes in
Adam of Bremen. It is also that of the Varni, Varini
and Veruni of the classical writers ; as well as the Werini
of the Introduction to the Leges Anglorum et Werinorum,
hoc est Thuringorwn.
Linones. — Luneburg. Language spoken during the
last century. Known through a pater-noster. Slavonic,
modified by German.
Such are the chief western Slavonians of the time of
Charlemagne. If they were not also the western Slavonians
of the first and second centuries, they must have emigrated
between the two periods ;* " must have done so, not in
parts but for the whole frontier ; must have, for the first
and last time, displaced a population which has ever been
the conqueror rather than the conquered ; must have dis-
placed it during one of the strongest periods of its history ;
must have displaced it everywhere, and wholly ; and
(what is stranger still) that not permanently — since, from
the time in question, these same Germans, who, between
A.D. 200 and A.D. 800, always retreated before the Sla-
vonians, have from A.D. 800 to A.D. 1800, always reversed
the process, and encroached upon their former dispossessors."
3.
MEDITERRANEAN INDO-GERMANS.
Physical conformation. — Dolikhokephalic, high facial angle ; hair, eyes, and
complexion, dark ; frame, more slender than bulky.
* Philological Transactions, No. 93.
542 INDO-GERMANIC IAPETIDJB,
When we consider that the aborigines of Spain were
Iberic, that they probably extended as far as the Rhone,
and that the ancient Ligurians of the Gulf of Genoa are
not absolutely known in respect to their ethnological rela-
tions, the apparent impropriety of restricting the term
Mediterranean to the classical nations of Greece and Italy
becomes diminished ; to which it may be added that the
undoubted civilizational influence of the land-and-water
conditions of these two peninsulas requires some term to
suggest it. The term, nevertheless, is open to amendment.
So much of what belongs to Greece and Italy is historical,
that the brevity of the preceding and following notices
may be excused.
MEDITERRANEAN FAMILIES AND NATIONS.
Localities. — Greece and Italy.
A rea. — Discontinuous.
Divisions. — 1. The Hellenic branch. 2. The Italian (Ausonian) branch.
Historical Influence. — Preeminently moral. Material as well.
The discontinuity of the Greek and Italian areas is a
difficulty which requires more investigation than it has met
with, and is a purely ethnological question.
So is the archseological part of both the Greek and Roman
ethnology, i.e. the relations of the Hellenes and Latins to
the early inhabitants of their respective peninsulas.
So is the analysis of their present representatives , e. g.
the question as to the amount of Slavonic, Italian, or Alba-
nian blood in the modern Greek, or the determination of
the Keltic, Roman, and Gothic elements amongst the French.
Of the sub-divisions of the —
ITALIAN BRANCH
the following classification is, perhaps, the most convenient ;
to which the previous arrangement of the ethnological ele-
ITALIANS. 543
ments into a, the Original ; 5, the Roman ; and c, the Super-
added, gives precision.
1. Italians, — Original Elements — a, Samnite, Etruscan,
Keltic (?), Ligurian, &c. ; 6, Roman of Rome ; c, German.
2. Hesperians. {Spanish and Portuguese). — a, Iberian,
Celtic (?) ; 5, Roman of the time of the second Punic war;
c, Gothic, Arabian.
3. French. — a, Celtic for the North, Iberian for the
South ; 5, Roman, chiefly from the time of Csesar; c, Ger-
man.
4. Swiss of Graubundten. — a, Undetermined; b, Roman
of an uncertain, though probably late, period ; c, German.
5. Wallachians. — a, Undetermined; probably Slavonic;
6, Roman of the time of Trajan; c, Turk (Hun, Comanian,
and Bulgarian), Slavonic, German, Ottoman, Turk.
n.
IRANIAN INDO-GERMANS.
The whole of this class is hypothetical. Such as it is,
however, it comprises the populations of Kurdistan, Persia,
Beloochistan, Affghanistan, and Kafferistan.
In order to understand the complications which leave so
large a section of the human species in an unsatisfactory
ethnological position, a notice of the Sanskrit language, and
of the history of opinion concerning it, is necessary.
The language called Sanskrit has a grammar of the same
copiousness and complexity as the Greek, and a vocabulary
which places it in the Indo-European class of tongues.
It is the language of the religious and literary writings
of the Brahminical Hindus ; the Ramayana and Mahabha-
rata (epic poems) being referred by Sanskrit scholars to
the second century B.C.
A more archaic form of it is the language of the Vedas,
referred by some Sanskrit scholars to 1400 B.C.
544 INDO-GERMANIC lAPETIDjE.
A form said to approach the archaic character of the
Veda. Sanskrit is the language of the arrow-headed inscrip-
tions— so far as they are Persian ; the date of these being
the reign of Darius.
A form ( the Pali ) less archaic than the Sanskrit of the
Mahabharata has been found upon inscriptions of the sera of
the Seleucidse in Babylon, and as such in records older
than that of the Non-Vedaic Sanskrit literature.
The same Pali is the language of the Buddhist religion
and literature in India, in Ceylon, in the Trans-Gangetic
Peninsula, in Tibet, and in the Sub- Himalayan range.
The Zend, a form closely allied to the proper Sanskrit is
the language of the oldest Parsi religious books, the Zen-
davesta.
Lastly — The inscriptions upon the Indo-Bactrian coins
of the successors of Alexander are either Sanskrit or
nearly Sanskrit.
It is convenient in speaking of these several forms of
speech as a class, to designate them by the term Iranian.
It is convenient, also, to indicate the extent to which the
approach made by the Persepolitan of a period so late as
the reign of Darius, to the Vedaic dialect, said to be about
one thousand years older, subtracts from the value of a
common argument in favour of the antiquity of the Vedas,
viz. the extent to which the language is more archaic than
the Sanskrit of the Epics.
It is well too, to indicate as a further disturbance to the
current opinions, the bearing of the Pali character of the
inscriptions ; whereby the oldest records are embodied in
the newest form of language.
All these, however, are subordinate questions ; the main
point being the enumeration of the Iranian Indo-Germans.
The Iranian Indo-Germans are those nations and tribes,
SANSKRIT LANGUAGE, 545
whatever they may be, who are descended from the speakers
of the Iranian languages — be they Sanskrit Proper, the
Sanskrit of the Vedas, Pali, Zend, or Persepolitan ; lan-
guages, which, it must be observed, are, in the present
state of our inquiry, dead languages.
What, then, are these tribes and nations ? The answer
to this gives us the Iranian Indo-Germans.
When the Sanskrit literature of India first commanded
attention, the answer to this question was — all the nations
of Hindostan.
The first researches (those of Ellis and others) upon the
languages of southern India showed that the Tamul tongues,
at least, were not in this category.
Further researches (those of Dr. Stevenson and others)
gave reasons for making the Mahratta language Tamul
rather than Iranian — not that the vocabulary was not San-
skritic, but that the grammar was such as could never have
been evolved out of the grammar of that tongue.
Prominence being thus given to the non-Sanskritic
character of the grammar of one Indo-Gangetic language,
the undeniable fact of a vast per-centage of the vocables
being Sanskrit, fell in value, as a sign of philological re-
lation.
Thence came an application of the criticism which had
unfixed the Mahratta language to the other (apparently)
more undoubtedly Iranian dialects of Northern India — the
Udiya, the Gujerati, the Hindi, and the Bengali.
The present writer believes that it unfixes these also ;
an opinion to which he has been led quite as much by
what has been said by the defenders as by what has been
said by the impugners of their Sanskritic origin . It is not
likely any better case will be made out for this, than the
one contained in a very able Dissertation of Dr. Max
N N
546 INDO-GERMANIC
Miillers.* Yet it is so unsatisfactory, that it almost proves
the question the other way.
Now all this goes to show that Iranian Indo-Germans
are not to be looked for in India ; except, of course, as a
foreign element to the originally Tamul population.
Whether they are to be looked for elsewhere, and (if
anywhere) in what quarters, follows the notice of the —
PERSIAN STOCK.
Physical conformation. — Cranium, dolikhokephalic ; complexion, varied, fair
with the mountaineer tribes, dark with those of the sandy deserts of the
south ; features, sometimes regular and delicate, sometimes bold and prominent ;
in the one case approaching the character of the high-caste Indians, in the other
Semitic or sub-Semitic.
Area. — Persia, Beloochistan, Affghanistan, Bokhara, Kafferistan.
Languages. — Undeniably Sanskrit in respect to a great per centage of the
vocables. Not undeniably Sanskrit in respect to their grammatical structure.
The last sentence contains the reason for the provisional
character of the present classification. The criticism, or
rather scepticism, which has been extended by others to
the Indo-Gangetic languages of Hindostan, is extended by
the present writer to the Persian.
If so — the nation that is at one and the same time
Asiatic and Indo-Germauic, remains to be discovered ; it
being remembered that it is only Indo-Germanic through
its relations with the speakers of the Sanskrit.
The divisions (more or less artificial) of the Persian
family are —
1. The Persians of Northern and Western Persia. —
Mahometans. Occupants of elevated plateaux, the alluvial
banks of great rivers being exceptional.
2. The Kurds of Kurdistan. — Mountaineers. Ma-
hometans.
3. The Beluchi of Beloochistan. — Dark-complexioned,
occupants of sandy steppes.
* Transactions of British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1847.
PERSIAN STOCK. 547
4. The Patans (Afghans). — Physiognomy frequently
Semitic or sub-Semitic.
5. T/te Taji&s of Bokhara. — Here the dominant popu-
lation is that of the Uzbek Tartars.
6. The Siaposh. — Fair-complexioned ; pagan moun-
taineers, speaking a language with a great per centage of
slightly-altered Sanskrit words.
I have no wish to undervalue the import of this last
fact — a fact to which great prominence has been given.
Unaccompanied, however, with any proof that the gram-
mar is Sanskritic, it leaves the question but little altered.
Kafferistan the Siaposh locality, is (roughly speaking)
the water-shed between the rivers Cabul and Oxus. In
these parts we find conterminous with the Siaposh, and
doubtless in the same category —
1 . The Lughmani. — Conterminous with the Affghans.
2. The Dardoh. — Conterminous with the Cashmirians.
3. The natives of Wokhan. — On the sources of the Oxus,
conterminous with the Turks of Pamer.
More desirous of directing attention to the numerous
ethnological difficulties which have arisen, and must yet
arise from the adoption of the current opinion respecting
the relations between the undoubted Indo-Germans of
Europe, and the equivocal Indo-Germans of Asia (meaning
thereby a native and aboriginal population), I abstain from
any positive expression of opinion as to the quarter from
which the Sanskrit language originated. That the lan-
guage which stands in the same relation to it, as the
Italian does to the Latin, has yet to be discovered I firmly
believe ; to which I may add that, except in Asia Minor
or Europe, I do not know where to look for it.
*****
In justice to the classification of the so-called Indian
N N 2
548
INDO-GERMANIC
Fig. 19.
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21.
Mongolidse, I must here re-
mark that the position of
the Indo-Gangetic portion
of it as Tamulian by no
means stands or falls with
the relation of its languages
to the Sanskrit ; since, even
if an undeniably Sanskrit
origin were proved for them,
the evidence of physical form
would still justify the in-
quirer in asking whether
they might not still be Ta-
mulians whose language had
been replaced by an im-
ported one.
* * * *
The term quasi-Pulinda
now finds an explanation.
The key to half the com-
plexities of the ethnology of
Hindostan lies in the fact
of the Brahminical portion
of the population being an
invading one, whilst the
degree to which it altered
the physical and moral cha-
racter of those who were
invaded, has a great range
of variation, from a general
change to an inappreciable
modification.
Now — where the invaded
UNPLACED FAMILIES. 549
have been so little changed as to preserve both their
original habits and their original language, they are full
or true Pulindas ; whilst, where they have lost their
language, but retained enough of their habits to show their
probable Pulinda relations, they are called gwm'-Pulindas.
*****
The " original-f- population of the country which now
separates the nearest point of the Dioscurian area from the
Seriform" must, in its earliest epoch, have been interme-
diate or transitional between the two stocks. However,
long before the dawn of history, this was displaced. By
what nations ? Most probably, by one of the two follow-
ing— The Turks, by means of a southern, the Persians by
means of a northern extension.
*****
UNPLACED STOCKS.
In the present state of our knowledge it is safest to leave
the following stocks unplaced.
i.
ARMENIANS.
That the Armenian language has Indo- Germanic elements
is undoubted. Whether, however, they are sufficient to
make it Indo-Germanic is questionable.
Sub-Semitic in appearance, and conterminous with the
Semitic area, the Armenian has much in common with the
tribes with which he is so often and so naturally associated,
the Dioscurian Georgians ; and it is through the Arme-
nian that the transition from the Mongolidoe to the Atlan-
tidsc is most likely to be recognized.
t See page 123.
550 THE IBERIANS.
2.
IBERIANS.
Native Name. — Euscaldunac.
Localities. — The provinces of Biscay and Navarre, in Spain ; the department
of the Basses Pyrenees in France. Conterminous with the French and Spanish.
Compared with the Spanish and Portuguese of the Pen-
insula, and (to a certain extent) with the French of France,
the Basque language has the same relation as the Welsh
has to the English. It is the remains of the ancient lan-
guage of the whole country.
Considering its mountain locality and its position at the
north-western extremity of the country, on the one hand,
and the undeniably recent origin of the present Spanish
and Portuguese, on the other, this is no more than is
expected a priori.
Further proof, however, has been supplied by the re-
searches of ethnographical philologists, most especially by
those of W. Humboldt. In an elaborate essay, first pub-
lished in Vater's Appendix to the Mitfiridates, that writer
analyzes the names of the ancient Spanish rivers, moun-
tains, and tribes, and shows that, whenever they have a
meaning at all, that meaning is to be found in the Basque.
He shows more, viz. that not only Spain and Portugal,
but that the Aquitanian province of Southern Gaul was
Basque as well ; in other words, that the present language
of Bilbao and Navarre was extended southwards, and that
of Les Basses Pyrenees northwards. Thus far the views
of Humboldt have been generally received.
The extension of the Basque to Sardinia and Corsica,
to Sicily and part of Italy, is more problematic. Never-
theless, it has been suggested ; and, in the way of colo-
nization, although not as an aboriginal language, it is
probable.
FINNIC HYPOTHESIS. 551
A geographical extension, however, is not necessary to
create an interest in the Basque language. Its antiquity
is that of the oldest tongues of Europe. Before Rome,
before Greece, before Tyre or Carthage had been attracted
by the mineral wealth of the far west, the mother-tongue of
the Basque was spoken on the Douro, the Tagus, the Ebro,
and the Guadalquiver. Afterwards it was the language of
those who defended Numantia and Saguntum ; of those
who dealt with the Greeks at Emporiae, and of those who
bought and sold with the Phoenicians at Gades and
Tartessus. The Lusitani, the Turdetani, the indomitable
Cantabri, were Euskaldunac. It is better, however, when
speaking of the Basque in its oldest form to call it Iberic
or Iberian.
That the general ethnological relations of the Basque are
undetermined is denoted by the place it takes in the
present volume. The principle, however, which is most
likely to determine it deserves to be noticed. It arises out
of a bold conception of (I believe) Arndt's, adopted in its
fullest extent by Rask, and, serving, at the present moment,
as one of the best methods which honourably characterize
the Scandinavian school of ethnology.
Just as, in geology, the great primary strata underlie
the more recent super-imposed formations, so does an older
and more primitive population represent the original occu-
pancy of Europe and Asia, previous to the extension of
newer, and (so to say) secondary — the Indo-Germans.
And just as, in geology, the secondary and tertiary
strata are not so continuous but that the primary form-
ations may, at intervals, show themselves through them, so
also do fragments of the primary population still exist —
discontinuous, indeed, but still capable of being recognized.
With such a view — the earliest European population
552 ALBANIANS.
was once comparatively homogeneous, from Lapland to
Grenada, from Tornea to Gibraltar. But it has been
overlaid and displaced ; the only remnants extant being the
Finns and Lapplanders, protected by their arctic climate,
the Basques by their Pyrenaean fastnesses, and, perhaps the
nation next in order of notice.
The Euskaldune is only one of the isolated languages of
Europe. There is another — the Albanian.
The notion that the Albanian is a mere mixture of
Greek and Turkish, has long been superseded by the con-
viction that, although mixed, it is essentially a separate
substantive language. The doctrine, also, that it is of
recent introduction into Europe has been similarly aban-
doned. There is every reason for believing that, as
Thunmann suggested, it was, at dawn of history, spoken in
the countries where it is spoken at the present moment.
If so, it is easily identified with either the ancient
lllyrian, or the ancient Epirote ; and, as it is by no means
certain that these two languages were essentially different,
it is possible that the Albanian may represent both.
Hence, it would certainly be spoken by a portion of the
soldiers of Pyrrhus, and, most probably, by the whole
army of Teuta and Gentius. At present, however, it is
enough to insist upon its independent character as a
separate substantive language.
ALBANIANS.
Native Name. — Skipe tar = Mountaineer.
Turkish. — Arnaout .
Locality. — The ancient Illyria and Epirus. Albanian settlers in Greece,
Turkey, and Calabria.
Conterminous with the Greek, Turk, Slavonic, and Italian languages ; and con-
taining numerous words borrowed from each of them.
Religion. — Imperfect Christianity and Mahometanism.
Social Constitution. — Division and subdivision into tribes and families.
PELASGI. 553
EXTINCT STOCKS.
Is there reason to believe that any definite stock, or
division of our species has become either wholly extinct, or
so incorporated as to be virtually beyond the recognition
and analysis of the investigator ? With the vast majority
of the so-called extinct stocks this is not the case — e.g. it
is not the case with the old Gauls of Gallia ; who, though
no longer extant, have extant congeners — the Welsh and
Gaels.
To an extinction of this kind amongst the better-known
historical nations of Europe and Asia — for in America
such extinction, or the tendency towards it, is the normal
condition of the majority of the aboriginal populations —
the nearest approach is to be found in the history of —
1.
THE PELASGI.
JEra. — In the time of Herodotus, known only in two —
Localities. — Chreston and Plakiae.
Area. — As then known, discontinuous.
Language. — Unintelligible to an Hellenic Greek.
I follow Mr. Grote, in his masterly separation of the
wheat of contemporary evidence from the chaff of tradition
in respect to the Pelasgi ; but do not follow him in the
inference from the dissimilarity between their language
and that of the Hellenes. The two sections might still be
as closely allied as the Greek and Roman. On the other
hand, the difference might be as great as that of the
Hebrew and English.
The point of most importance is the nature of their two
unconnected points of occupancy at the time of Herodotus.
1. If these represented parts of the original area, the
intermediate portions whereof had been overlaid by a per-
manent invasion, the evidence would be in favour of the
554 ETRUSCANS.
Pelasgi having been in the same category with the
Thracians ; and, as such, perhaps Slavonic.
2. On the other hand — if they represented two separate
colonizations such a distribution would indicate an origin in
«. Asia Minor ; b. the .ZEgean Islands ; or c. Continental
Greece.
A sanguine scholar may, perhaps, hope that an investi-
gation of the present dialects of the two Herodotean
localities may reward the minute analyst with some
Pelasgic glosses. — Optandum magis quam sperandum.
THE ETRUSCANS.
JEra of their maximum development. — The earlier centuries of the Roman
Republic. Veii taken 360 A.U.C.
Historical Influences. — Upon early Rome.
Social Development. — Agricultural, architectural, religious, commercial, artistic.
Partially self-developed. Probably, chiefly of Greek origin.
Alphabet. — Derived from the Greek.
Language. — Extant, only in hitherto untranslated (or imperfectly translated)
fragments. Considered, by Lipsius, as Indo-Gennanic.
The reason in favour of the descent of the Etruscans
from the Rhaetian Alps has not been put, even by Niebuhr,
so strongly as it might have been.
What we find in Livy is something more than an opinion
to that effect. It is an express statement that the Rhsetian
and Etrurian languages were alike.
If so, we have a discontinuous area ; an area which —
considering that the Cisalpine Kelts were pre-eminently
the tribes of an encroaching frontier — was, most likely,
originally continuous.
I believe, then, that the Etrurians represented the
maximum civilization, and the Rhsetian mountaineers the
maximum rudeness of one and the same stock — a stock
originally indigenous to Northern Italy, but subsequently
HYBRIDISM. 555
broken-up by Keltic and other permanent invasions. Such,
at least, is the ethnological view of the question — based
upon the general phaenomena of ethnological distribution.
3.
POPULATIONS OF ASIA MINOR.
How numerous these may once have been is difficult to
determine. Thus much, however, may safely be assumed ; —
1. That the languages represented by the western dia-
lects of the Georgian had some extension beyond their
present frontier — possibly as far as Bithynia.
2. That the languages represented by the Lycian of the
Lycian inscriptions had some extension beyond Lycia — pos-
sibly (though there are several difficulties to be reconciled)
as far as the Hellespont.
3. That on some portion of the coast, a language intelli-
gible to some portion of the Thracians on the one hand,
and the Armenians on the other, was spoken.
Such are a few of the details of an important section of
our subject. — They are given, however, more for illus-
trating the nature of the difficult question of Descent than
for exhausting the subject.
The same applies to the complex subject of —
HYBRIDISM (EXTREME INTERMIXTURE).
Of this just enough will be said to illustrate the form
which the present classification of the primary divisions of
mankind renders necessary.
I.
lAPETIDjE AND MONGOLIDjE.
A. Kelts with Mongolida. — The infusion of Keltic blood
takes place when the Welsh, Irish, or Scotch of England,
like the —
13. Goths with Mongolidte, come as \.English or Americans,
in contact with — a, Chinese ; J, Malays; c, Polynesians;
556 HYBRIDISM.
«?, Australians; 0, Eskimo; /, American Indians; #, East
Indians.
2. High-Germans with — a, American Indians ; 5, Finns.
3. Dutch with — a, Chinese; 5, Malays; c, East Indians;
c?, South Americans (Guiana).
4. Scandinavians with — a, Eskimo ; 5, Ugrians.
C. Slavonians with Mongolidte — chiefly Russians with
— a, Siberians ; J, Eskimo ; c, North-east Americans ; d,
Turanians ; 0, Dioscurians.
D. Mediterranean Indo-Germans with Mongolida —
chiefly with —
1 . French with — a, North Americans ; 5, South Ameri-
cans (Guiana).
2. Spaniards with — #, Malays (the Philippines) ; 5,
North Americans (Mexico, &c.) ; c, South Americans
(Peru, Buenos Ayres, Guiana, Venezuela, &c.)
3. Portuguese with — a, Chinese ; b, East Indians ; c,
Brazilian Americans.
II.
LAJPETIDjE AND ATLANTIC.
A. Kelts with Atlantidee. — Under the same conditions
as English Goths.
B. Goths with AtlantidtE.
1. English and Americans with Africans.
2. Dutch with Hottentots — Griquas.
C. Mediterranean Indo-Germans with Atlantidte.
Spanish and Portuguese with Africans.
ill.
ATLANTIDjE AND MONGOLIDTE.
1. North American Negroes with Native Indians —
Zambos.
2. South American Negroes with Native Indians —
Mamelucos.
INTERMIXTURE. 557
It is only when two extreme sections of two of the
primary divisions meet that there is true Hybridism. With
intermediate and transitional forms, such as the Arab and
Indian, and others, there is merely —
SIMPLE INTERMIXTURE.
This is a point of minute ethnology. To take a few of
the European populations as instances, it attempts to deter-
mine the amount of foreign elements in —
1. The English. — These being Keltic, Roman, Danish,
Anglo-Norman, &c., anterior to, or engrafted on, a Saxon
foundation.
2. The French. — Foundation, Roman ; other elements,
Keltic, German, &c.
3. The Spanish. — Foundation, Roman ; other elements,
Iberic, Goth, Arab.
4. The Germans. — Foundation, Gothic ; other elements,
Slavonic, Keltic.
5. The Slavonians. — Non-Slavonic elements, Ugrian,
Turk, Mongol, Dioscurian, &c.
6. The Hungarians. — Non-Majiar elements ; Roman,
Turk, Mongol, Slavonic, German.
And so on throughout most countries of the world.
Intermediate between simple and extreme intermixture
(or Hybridism), but at points where it is difficult to
draw a line of demarcation, are such half-breeds as those
of the Turk and Mongol, Turk and Persian, Turk and
Georgian, Persian and Georgian, &c. — the difference be-
tween the parent stocks lying within a small compass.
PART II.
GENERAL AND SPECIAL APOPHTHEGMS.
ALTHOUGH the enumeration, classification, and partial
description of the varieties of the human species form the
basis of the natural history of man, a short notice of the
general character of the science which investigates it is a
proper adjunct to them. This will consist in apophthegms,
upon its nature, objects, and methods, so far as the last
have been evolved.
General Apophthegms.
I.
The natural history of man is chiefly divided between
two subjects, anthropology and ethnology.
II.
Anthropology determines the relations of man to the
other mammalia.
III.
Ethnology, the relations of the different varieties of
mankind to each other.
IV.
Anthropology is more immediately connected with zoo-
logy; differing from it chiefly in the complexity of its
problems, e.g. the appreciation of the extent to which
the moral characteristics of man complicate a classification
560 APOPHTHEGMS.
which, in the lower animals, is, to a great extent, founded
on physical criteria.
V.
Ethnology is more immediately connected with his-
tory ; differing from it chiefly in its object, its method,
and its arena.
VI.
Whilst history represents the actions of men as deter-
mined by moral, ethnology ascertains the effects of physical
influences.
VII.
History collects its facts from testimony, and ethnology
does the same ; but ethnology deals with problems upon
which history is silent, by arguing backwards, from effect
to cause.
VIII.
This throws the arena of the ethnologist into an earlier
period of the world's history than that of the proper his-
torian.
IX.
It is the method of arguing from effect to cause which
gives to ethnology its scientific, in opposition to its literary,
aspect ; placing it, thereby, in the same category with
geology, as a paleeontological science.* Hence it is the
science of a method — a method by which inference does
the work of testimony. Furthermore, ethnology is history
in respect to its results ; geology in respect to its method.
And in the same way that geology has its zoological,
physiological and such other aspects as constitute it a
mixed science ; ethnology has them also.
* It is scarcely necessary to inform the reader that both this term and the
classification are from Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences.
APOPHTHEGMS. 561
X.
The simple record of facts constitutes ethnography, or
descriptive ethnology.
XI.
The application of these to the investigation of unascer-
tained phenomena is general ethnology, or (simply)
ethnology.
XII.
The highest ethnological problems are those connected
with, 1. the unity ; 2. the geographical origin ; 3. the
antiquity ; and 4. the future destination upon earth of
man. It arrives at these by its own proper and peculiar
methods.
XIII.
Ethnological classification deals with connexion in the way
of descent and affiliation only. — It has no such object as
the arrangement of individuals or classes according to any
common physical or moral characteristics, except so far as
these indicate community of origin.
XIV.
In the present condition of the science, the appreciation
of facts is of equal importance with the collection of them.
XV.
A fact may be appreciated either as a characteristic, or
as an influence.
XVI.
Facts used as signs or characteristics ; and, as such, mostly
applied to the purposes of classification, are either physical
or moral — physical, as when we determine a class from
colour of the skin ; moral, as when we determine one from
the purity or impurity of the habits.
o o
562 APOPHTHEGMS.
XVII.
Moral characteristics are either philological (i.e. con-
nected with the language), or non- philological (i.e. not so
connected).
XVIII.
As elements of classification, the wow- philological moral
characters are of less value than the philological ; since
common conditions develop common habits ; whereas
nothing but imitation determines the use of similar combi-
nations of articulate sounds in different languages.
XIX.
In the way, too, of physical characteristics, common
conditions develop common points of conformation. Hence,
as elements of classification, physical characters are of less
value than the philological moral ones.
XX.
On the other hand — as measures of the effects of common
influences, physical structure and the wow-philological
moral elements are of more value than the phenomena
of language.
XXI.
Facts requiring appreciation as influences, like those
requiring appreciation as signs, are moral as well as
physical. Have moral or physical causes most to do with
premature nubility * and the want of variety in the ex-
pression of individual countenances ?
XXII.
Unity of the human species. — A protoplast is an organ-
ised individual, capable (either singly or as one of a pair)
* Plus ad catamenia proecipitanda, et ad nubilitatem immaturam inducendam
vitiosam societatis compagem quam aut caelum aut terra, conferre, libellis de Cata-
meniis Afrarum, vicit, vir sagax, Robertonus Mancuniensis.
APOPHTHEGMS. 563
of propagating individuals ; itself having been propagated
by no such previous individual or pair.
XXIII.
The definition of the term species by means of the idea
of descent from a single protoplast, has the advantage of
being permanent and immutable ; inasmuch as it is based
upon a ground that no subsequent change can set aside —
" non taraen irritum
Diffinget, infectumque reddet
Quod fugiens semel hora vexit."
On the other hand the proof of the original descent is an
inference rather than a fact either ascertained or capable of
being so.
XXIV.
The definition of the term species upon the grounds of
constancy of characters, has the advantage of being
-founded upon a fact capable of being ascertained. On the
other hand, the induction which proves it may disprove it
also. The same applies to those definitions of the term
wherein the phenomena of hybridism play a part.
XXV.
The balance of inconveniences is, in the mind of the
present writer in favour of the idea of descent determining
the meaning of the word species — for human natural
history at least.
XXVI.
Hence — a species is a class of individuals, each of which
is hypothetically considered to be the descendant of the
same protoplast, or of the same pair of protoplasts.
o o2
564 APOPHTHEGMS.
XXVII.
A multiplicity of protoplasts for a single species is
a contradiction in terms. If two or more such indi-
viduals (or pairs), as like as the two Dromios, were the
several protoplasts to several classes of organised beings
(the present members being as like each other as their first
ancestors were), the phenomenon would be the existence
in Nature of more than one undistinguishable species, not
the existence of more than one protoplast to a single
species.
XXVIII.
A variety is a class of individuals, each belonging to
the same species, but each differing from other individuals
of the species in points wherein they agree amongst each
other.
XXIX.
A race is a class of individuals concerning which there
are doubts as to whether they constitute a separate species,
or a variety of a recognised one. Hence, the term is
subjective ; i. e. it applies to the opinion of the investigator
rather than to the object of the investigation ; so that its
power is that of the symbol for an unknown quantity in
algebra. The present writer having, as yet, found no
tribe or family, for which a sufficient reason for raising it
to a new species has been adduced, has either not used the
word race at all, or used it inadvertently. ' Its proper place
is in investigation not in exposition.
XXX.
For an argument against the unity of the human
species, drawn from the analogy of the lower animals,
to be valid, it must be taken from a species co-extensive
in its geographical distribution with man.
APOPHTHEGMS. 565
XXXI.
To be thus co-extensive, it must not only be spread over
a large area, but it must be spread continuously.
XXXII.
To be thus co-extensive, it must be found at equally high
and low sea-levels, as well as at equally distant degrees of
latitude and longitude.
XXXIII.
Antiquity of the human species. — This problem is most
likely to be worked through the phenomena of language.
When determined it will give precision to the recent
period of the geologist, converting it from a relative into a
conventionally absolute epoch.
XXXIV.
The average rate at which languages change is capable
of being approximated.
XXXV.
The maximum difference, at a given period, between two
or more languages is also capable of being approximated.
XXXVI.
The original unity of the species is a postulate.
XXXVII.
The minimum amount of time necessary for the maximum
amount of difference is the measure of the shortest admis-
sible recent period.
XXXVIII.
The probable nature of the future changes in the relation-
ship between the different varieties of man is, certainly,
566 APOPHTHEGMS.
within the department of the ethnologist. In this case,
however, he reverses his method, and, arguing from the past
and present to the future, argues from cause to effect also.
XXXIX.
Still his proper sphere is limited to the appreciation of
physical influences. The historian measures the influence
of a great warrior. The ethnologist inquires whether the
American of New England can be acclimatized to the inter-
tropical influences of Brazil.
NOTE.
Translation and Transliteration (Metagraphy) of the specimens of—
A.
The Vei writing (syllabic).
Amu a mo sa Rora fa vala a ro ya ya deng mu ulu ru Vai ke
And he man send Rora father to he said oh oh child who begotten in Vei this
a na niye a ro i ni mo sa a bina kilafa gboluye ro mo mu la
he come here he say you must man send him fetch back book say man who go
ke a wa tang Balaka mo ngo a Rora fa tala.
this his — name Balaka he Hora father met.
B.
The Arrow-headed.
lyam Frada aduruj-iya awatha athaha adam Khshayathia amiya
Hie Phraates mendacium-dixit ita dicebat Ego rex sum
Marguwa.
Margiana.
C.
The powers of the Tuarick AlpJiabet.
l=w, 2=n, 3=gh, 4=1, 5=y, 6=t, 7=b, 8=kh, 9=r, 10=d, ll=k, 12
=m, 13=z, 14=th, 15=sh, 16=nn, I7=kk.
D.
The Cherokee writing (syllabic).
Dite le no di sak.
ayado 16'. iL — (Gfenesis, chapter ii.)
1. No-nah-no ga-16-lo-i e-lo-hi-no du-li-sa-qua-do-ne-i te-ne-lo-sa-go-i, ni-ga-y
nu-su-qui-sa-wb'-i.
2. ga li quo gi ne no — iga-unelanbhi — usaquagai — dulb'wisatenehb'i nwotlbnbi.
— nyawe sole i no — galiquogine — iga, — nigay — iga — nigay — dulb'wisatenehb'i,
nwotlonbi. —
3. unelanbhino — osb — unetoele — galiquogine — iga,— ulbquoteneno ; wihitso —
yeno — utsa-we-solbsatenei — nigay — dnlbwisatenehbi, — unclanoi — ale — uwotlo-
nbi — unelanbhi. — Deciphered by E, Norri&s^Esq-
INDEX.
ABIPONIANS, 428,
Abnaki, 328.
Abors, 34.
Accaways, 445.
Accocesaws, 350.
Achagua, 441.
Achastlier, 384.
Adampi, 476.
Adahi, 342.
Adiyah, 479.
Afer, v. Danakil.
Affghans, 547.
Agows, 500.
Ahnenin, 344.
Aino, 273,281.
Aka, 34.
Akvambu, 476.
Albanians, 552.
Aleutians, 292.
Algonkins, 328.
Aliche, 349.
Alibamons, 338.
Amakosas, 490.
Amazirgh, 507.
Amharic, 517.
Ammonites, 514.
Amokebits, 429.
Anamese, 15.
Anatom, 225.
Andamanese, 246.
Andastes, 333.
Anies, 333.
Antilles, 446.
Apaches, 348.
Apelusas, 342.
Api, 224.
Apolistas, 449.
Appamatucks, 335.
Arabs, 515.
Arapahoes, 344.
Araris, 432.
Arawaks,445.
Arecunas, 445.
Aripe, 385.
Armenians, 549.
Arrohatecks, 335.
Arm Isles, 162,211.
Ashanti, 476.
Assam, 54, 465.
Assyrians, 512.
Assineboin, 333.
Atacamas, 414.
Atchinese, 137.
Athabaskans, 302.
Atnas, 295, 311.
Attacapas, 343.
Attiondarons, 333.
Aura Islanders, 196.
Austral Islanders, 196.
Australians, 229.
Avars, 83.
Avekvom, 478.
Avoyelles, 351.
Aymaras, 413.
BABYANIS, 181.
Babylonians, 5 1 2.
Bagnon, 476.
Bagoes, 476.
Balantes, 476.
Bali, 158.
Bambarrans, 473.
Basares, 476.
Bashis, 181.
Basques, 549.
Batangas, 489.
Battas, 137.
Beaver Indians, 302.
Bechuanas, 490.
Begharmi, 481.
Beja, v. Bishari.
Belandas, 135.
Beluchi, 546.
Bengali, 465.
Benin, 477.
Berber, 500.
Berdars, 465.
Besisik, 135.
Bethuk, 330.
Bhils, 465.
Bhot, 18.
Bidduma, 481.
568
ISDEX.
Bidias, 351.
Changes, 414.
Bikhaneer, 465.
Charruas, 420.
Billechula, 300.
Chatham Island, 203.
Biluxi, 341.
Chayma, 446.
Bimbia, 479.
Chemmesyan, 300.
Bishari, 501.
Chepang, 53.
Bissago, 476.
Cheraws, 334.
Blackfoots, 328.
Cherokees, 337.
Bocootawwonaukes, 335.
Chesapeaks, 335.
Bodega, 383.
Chetimachas, 341.
Bodo, 37.
Chiapa, 409.
Bohemians (Tsheks), 539.
Chinese, 15,55.
Bonaks, 347.
Chinuks(Tshin<ik),317.
Bonny, 478.
Chippewyans, 302, 337.
Bor Abors, 33.
Chiquitos, 425.
Borneo, 163.
Chiricoa, 442.
Bornu, 481.
Chiriguanos, 444.
Botocudos, 430.
Chonchona, 409.
Bougainville Island, 222.
Chontal, 410.
Brahui, 464.
Choctahs, 337.
Brazilians, 430.
Chowry, 249.
Bullom, 473.
Chorotega,410.
Bulti, 19.
Chorti,410.
Bundelcund, 465.
Chumetos, 432.
Burmese, 15, 23.
Chupumnes, 382.
Busaos, 178.
Cingalese, 468.
Busiks, 78.
Circassians, 119.
Cochimi, 385.
CABYJLES, 307.
Coco Island, 204.
Cachineses, 432.
Coco-maricopas, 393.
Caddos, 338.
Colapissas, 341.
Caicaclies, 351.
Concani, 466.
Calabar (Old), 478,
Congarees, 334.
Cames, 432.
Connamox, 334.
Californians, 381.
Coosadas, 338.
Camacan, 431.
Cora, 385,401.
Canarins, 430.
Corabeca, 426.
Cances, 350.
Coramines, 334.
Canichana, 424.
Coretu, 431.
Capita, 402.
Copts, 509.
Capoxos, 432.
Covareca, 426.
Cappadocians, 519.
Coshattas, 349.
Caribs, 445.
Cree, 328.
Carisos, 348.
Cm (Cruinan), 478.
Caroline Indians, 335.
Cuitlateca, 402.
Carnicobarians, 249.
Cumanachos, 432.
Carriers, 302.
Cumanches, 347.
Cashmirians, 467.
Cumbri, 480.
Catawba, 334.
Curucaneca, 426.
Cathlascou, 323.
Curuminaca, 426.
Cayugas, 333.
Cutachos, 431.
Cay6s, 324.
Cutcb, 465.
Cayuvava, 425.
Cyprians, 519.
Celts, 529.
Celebes, 169.
DACOTA, 333.
Chacriabas, 431.
Dahodinni, 302.
Chaga, 506.
Dallas, 484.
Chain Island, 196.
Dammaras, 497.
Chaldees,513.
Danes, 535.
Danakil, 499.
Dardoh, 547.
Dar-mitchegan, 484.
Dar-Saleh, v. Mobba.
Denka, 483.
Dhimal, 37.
Diggers, 347.
Digothi, 297.
Doba, 484.
Dog-rib Indians, 302.
Dongolawi, 500.
Drases, 516.
Dutch (Batavian), 534.
Ducie's Island, 197.
Dufla, 34.
EASTER ISLAND, 197.
Edomites, 514.
Ekhili, 515.
Elamites, 519.
Ende, 158.
Enganho Island, 140.
Erigas, 333.
Erromango, 224.
Eskimo, 288.
Eslen, 384.
Esthonians, 101.
Etchemin, 328.
Etruscans, 553.
FALASHA, 500.
Fanti, 476.
Fellatah, 480.
Felup, 475.
Feroe Isles, 535.
Fertit, 483.
Feejee (Fiji) Islands, 226.
Finlanders, 99.
Formosa, 182.
Fotuna, 205.
Free-will Island, 205.
French, 543.
Frisians, 534.
Fulahs, 480.
Furians, 483.
GAELS, 529.
Gafat, 517.
Galibi, 446.
Gallas, 499.
Gambier Island, 196.
Garo, 32.
Georgians, 112.
Germans, 532.
G£s, 433.
Gha, 476.
Gheez, 517.
Gilbert Islands, 190.
Goitacas, 430.
INDEX. 569
Gongas, 485.
Goulou Cluster, 188.
Grebo, 478.
Greeks, 542.
Griquas, 556.
Guanches, 507.
Guarani, 443.
Guarayos, 444.
Guiama, 402.
Gujerati, 465.
Gurungs, 53.
Gypsy, 465.
HAEELTSUK, 300.
Haidah Dialects, 300.
Hare Indians, 302.
Haroti, 46,5.
Haussa, 479.
Hebrews, 514.
Hervey Isles, 196.
Himyarites, 515.
Hiong-Nou, 88.
Hindi, 465.
Hindostani, 465.
Hittites (Hivites, &c.), 518.
Horn Island, 204.
Hottentots, 496.
Huasteca, 410.
Huilliche, 415.
Huitcole, 401.
Humas, 341.
Hungarians, 101.
Hurons, 333.
IAWANIS, 350.
lapetidse, 1 — 14.
Ibo, 479.
Icelanders, 535.
Igorots, 178.
Ikas, 385.
Illyrians, 539.
Ilmormo, «. Galla.
Indians, 335.
Inkalite, 297.
Inkhuluklait,297.
Immer, 205.
loways, 334.
Iron, 115.
Iroquois, 332.
Ishmaelites, 514.
Isle of Lepers, 224.
Isles of Brown (Ralik Chain),! 90.
Italians, 542.
ltd (Itenes), 425.
Itetepanes, 178.
Itonama, 424.
JAPANESE, 273—277.
Java, 152.
Jariyas, 53.
570
INDEX.
Jili, 33.
Jokong, 135.
KACHARI, 32.
Kachiquel, 410.
Kaifre, 488.
Kalapuya, 324.
Kaldani, 511.
Kamskadales, 273—285.
Kambojians, 15 — 22.
Kaus, 325.
Karien, 29.
Kasia, 32.
Katodis, 465.
Kazumbi, 491 .
Kecoughtans, 335.
Kelamonesian Stock, 122—210.
Kelts, 530.
Kenay of Cook's Inlet, 295.
Keiisy, v. Nubian.
Ketchies, 351.
Keyauwees, 334.
Khamti, 21.
Khyen, 30.
Khasiyas, 466.
Khasdim,w. Chaldees.
Khazars, 87
Khumia (Chooraeeas), 30.
Ki Islands, 161.
Kiaways, 347.
Killiwashat, 325.
Kikkapoos, 329.
Kingsmills Group, 190.
Kirata, 53.
Kisky, 382.
Kissi, 473.
Kissour, 481.
Koldagi, 483.
Koltshani, 295.
Koluch, 294.
Konagi, 293.
Koniunki, 491.
Konzas, 334.
Koraqua, 496.
Koreans, 273, 275.
Koriaks, 273, 283.
Kossa, 493.
Kuki, 30.
Kulis, 465.
Kunawer, 20.
Kurds, 546.
Kuskokwim, 293.
Kutamis, 316.
Kyo, 32.
LACONDONA, 409.
Ladakh Tibetans, 19.
Lamoursek Groups, 188.
Lampong, 138.
Laplanders, 101.
Layamon, 385.
Lenguas, 429.
Lenne Lenape, 329.
Lepchas, 53.
Lesgians, 115.
Ligurians, 529.
Limbu, 53.
Lipans (Sipans), 349.
Lithuanians, 536.
Lolos, 28.
Lord North's Island, 186.
Louisiade, 225.
Loyalty Isle, 225.
Longounor, 189.
Lughmani, 547.
Lules, 429.
Lutuami, 325.
Lu-Ch6 Islands, 28.
Lycians, 554.
MACHAPANGA, 334.
Machacari, 431.
Macusi, 446.
Maongkong, 445.
Madagascar, 210, 519.
Magars, 53.
Magimut, 207.
Malia, 477.
Mahrattas, 466.
Maithili, 465.
Malacca, 133.
Malays, 131.
Maldivians, 468.
Malali, 431.
Malegasi, 210, 519.
Mallicollo, 224.
Mam, 499.
Mamelucos, 556.
Mandara, 481.
Mandingos, 473.
Mandans, 333
Manipur, 31.
Manxman, 529.
Marquesas, 198.
Mariannes, 188.
Masco vie, 350.
Massachusetts, 329.
Mataguayos, 428.
Matlazinga, 409.
Mauhes, 435.
Maya, 401, 410, 428.
Mayes, 350.
Maypures, 441.
Mazateca, 409.
Mazenas, 492.
Mbayas, 428.
Mbocobis, 428.
Menangkabaw, 137.
INDEX.
571
Meherrin, 333.
Mendajaha, 516.
Menieng, 431.
Mendi, 473.
Messisaugis, 329.
Mewar, 465.
Mexico, 408.
M'Hiao, 506.
Miaou-tse, 25.
Micmacs, 328.
Micronesians, 186.
Minetaris, 333.
Mira, 34.
Mishimi, 33.
Mixteca, 409.
Mizjeji, 115.
M'Kuafi, 501.
ATKindo, 506.
Moa, 162.
Moabites, 517.
Mobba, 483.
Mocet£nes, 449.
Mceso-Goths, 532.
Mohawks, 333.
Mohicans, 329.
Mokorosi, 402.
Molele, 324.
Moluccas, 175.
Moluche, 415.
M6n, 15, 23.
Monakans, 329.
Moskito, 413.
Montaug, 326.
Moqui, 394.
Movima, 424.
Moxos, 424.
Mpoongas, 489.
M'Sambara, 493.
M'Sigua, 493.
Multani, 465.
Mundrucus, 435.
Murus, 436.
Munnis, 53.
Mussai, 506.
Muttuck, 34.
Muysca, 412.
My am ma, 23.
NAG us, 30.
Naloo, 476.
Namaquas, 497.
Namollos, 292.
Nandsamunds, 335.
Narragansets, 329.
Natchez, 340.
Natchitoches, 342.
Navahos, 348.
Navaosos, 350.
Navigators Islands, 195.
Nehanni, 299.
Nemshaw, 382.
Newars, 53.
New Guinea, 213.
New Zealand, 203.
New Hebrides, 224.
Nicobar Islanders, 247.
Nipissing, 328.
Nipmuk, 329.
Nitendi (Indendi), 222.
Norwegians, 535.
Nottoway, 333.
Nubians, 500.
Nutkans, 301.
ODIPOOR, 465.
Ojibwa, 328.
Omaguas, 444.
Omahaw, 334.
Ombay, 158.
Oneida, 333.
Onondago, 333.
Ooch, 465.
Orang Maruwi, 140.
Orotina, 410.
Osage, 334.
Ostiaks, 97.
Otomi, 403.
Ottomacas, 442.
Ottowa, 328.
Ottogami, 329.
Ottos, 334.
Otuke, 426.
Ouluthy (Egoy Island), 188.
PACAGUARA, 425.
Pacanas, 342.
Paducas, 346.
Paioconeca, 427.
Palaik, 325.
Palawan, 176.
Palembang, 139.
Pali, 544.
Pam6, 402.
Pamticos, 329.
Panhami, 432.
Panwees, 489.
Papel, 475.
Papuans, 211.
Pareci, 435.
Pascagoulas, 341.
Paspaheghes, 335.
Passamaquoddy, 328.
Patacho, 431.
Patagonians, 418.
Paumotu, 196.
Pawnees (Panis), 344.
Payaguas, 428.
Pawtucket, 329.
572
INDEX.
Pelasgi, 552.
Pelew Group, 187.
Pennakuk, 329.
Penobscot, 328.
Penrhynn Island, 204.
Pericu, 385.
Permians, 97.
Persians, 546.
Persian frontier, 81.
Pessa, 473.
Philippines, 176.
Philistines, 518.
Phoenicians, 513.
Picts, 529.
Pimos, 390, 393.
Pipil Indians, 410.
Pirinda, 401.
Piro language, 396.
Pitcairn Island, 196.
Pittas, 432.
Pochonchi, 410.
Pocomo, 492.
Poggi Islanders, 140.
Polabians, 539.
Poles, 539.
Popoluca, 409.
Portuguese, 543.
Potawotomi, 329.
Pounipet, 189.
Puelche, 415.
Pulinda, 463.
Pulo Batu (Mas Islanders), 140.
Puncas, 334.
Punjabi, 465.
Puquina, 411.
Purbutti, 466.
QAMAMYL, 484.
Quan-to, 28.
Quiche, 410.
Quichua, 413.
Quitos, 413.
Quixos, 413.
Quiyoughcohanocks, 335.
RADACK CHAIN, 190.
Ramusis, 465.
Rapa, 196.
Rawack, 212.
RayetLaut (Orang Akkye), 137.
Rejang, 138.
Rhukheng, 23.
Riccarees, 344.
Rotuma, 204.
Rumsen, 384.
Russians, 538.
SAABS, 497.
Sahaptin, 323.
Saintskla, 325.
Salish, 311.
Saliva, 439.
Saluda, 334.
Samaritans, 514.
Samb'eids, 265.
Sampiches, 347.
Samucu, 427.
Sandwich Isle, 244.
Sandwich Islands, 198.
Sangara, 473.
Sanskrit Language, 544.
Santees, 334.
Sapiboconi, 425.
Sapi, 476.
Saraveca, 425.
Sauk, 329.
Savage Island, 204.
Saxons, 534.
Scarborough Island, 190.
Scoffis, 328.
Semang, 136.
Seneca, 333.
Serawolli, 473.
Serbs, 539.
Sereres, 473.
Servians, 538.
Serwatty, 161.
Severnow, 383.
Sewees, 334.
Shabun, 483.
Shangalla, 484.
Shasti, 325.
Shawno, 329.
Sheshatapoosh, 328.
Shilluk, 483.
Shoshonis, 347.
Shyennes, 330.
Siamese, 1 5, 2 1 .
Siaposh, 547.
Silong, 29.
Sinca, 410.
Singphu, 33.
Si-Fan, 24.
Sindi, 465.
Sioux, 333.
Siranians, 97.
Sirionos, 444.
Sissispahaws, 334.
Sitkans, 296.
Sokko, 473.
Solomon's Island, 222.
Solymi, 519.
Somauli, 499.
Sonsoral, 187.
Sooni (Zuni), 395.
Spaniards, 543.
Stonoes, 334.
Subtugil, 410.
INDEX.
573
Strongbow Indians, 302.
Tungaas, 296.
Sulimana, 473,
Tunicas, 341.
Sulus, 176.
Tupi, 444.
Sumatra, 137.
Tutelo, 333.
Sumbawa, 158.
Tuscarora, 333.
Sungai, 481.
Tzendales, 409.
Susu, 473.
Swedes, 535.
UALAN, 189.
Swiss, 543.
Uche, 338.
Syrians, 511.
Uchitee, 385.
Udai, 136.
TACTAYAS, 432.
Ugalents (Ugalyakhmutsi), 296.
Tacana, 449.
Ugrians, 95, 103.
Taculli, 302.
Union Group, 203.
Taensas, 341.
Unataquas, 350.
Tagalas, 1 79.
Utahs, 347.
Tahitian Group, 196.
Talatui, 382.
VADDAHS, 468.
Tamulians, 462.
Vaitupu Groups, 204.
Tamoyos, 444.
Vanikoro, 222.
Tanna, 225.
Vazimbers, 520.
Taos, 396.
Vei, 473.
Tapii, 426.
Vileles, 429.
Tapua, 479.
Virginia Indians, 335.
Tarahumara, 898.
Voguls, 96.
Tarasca, 401.
Voturongs, 432.
Tarama, 439.
Votiaks, 98.
Tasmanian, 244.
Tavaiti, 493.
WAIGIU, 212.
Tcheremiss, 99.
Waikuru, 385.
Tchuvatch, 99.
Wakamba, 493.
Tepeguana, 400.
Wallachians, 543.
Teton, 333.
Wampjigo, 506.
Texian Tribes, 349.
Wanika, 492.
Th6kiu, 89.
Wapitian, 439.
Tibetans of Butan, 15, 19.
Warali, 465.
Tibboos, 485.
Warow, 438.
Tigre, 517.
Waraskoyacks, 335.
Tikopia, 204.
Washitas, 351.
Timbiras, 433.
Wataita, 493.
Timmani, 473.
Waterees, 334.
Timor Laut, 161.
Waxsaws, 334.
Timor, 160.
Westoes, 334.
Tobas, 428.
Whidah, 477.
Toncahuas, 350.
Wico, 351.
Tonga Group, 195.
Wihinast, 346.
Toteros, 334.
Winnebagoes, 333.
Totonaca, 401.
Winyaws, 334.
Totune, 325.
Woccoon, 334.
Towiachs, 349.
Wolaitsa, 484.
Tsalel, 325.
Woloff, 473.
Tshugatsi, 293.
Wyandot, 333.
Tshampa, 28.
Wyanokea, 334.
Tsihaili, 310.
Tuaricks, 508.
XARAMENKS, 351.
Tuhuktukis, 350.
Tularena language, 383.
YAKUTS, 93.
Tumali, 483.
Yamassees, 334.
Tungusians, 61, 63.
Yakon,324.
574
INDEX.
Yalesumnes, 382.
Yallonka, 473.
Yancton, 333.
Yanctoanan, 333.
Yangaro, 484.
Yap, 188.
Yarriba, 479.
Yarura, 442.
Yasumnes, 382.
Yellow-knife Indians, 302.
Yemez (Hemez) language, 396.
Yeniseians, 265, 268.
Yezids, 516.
Yuk, 382.
Yukahiri, 265, 269.
Yukal, 382.
Yumas, 393.
Yunga, 414.
Yuracares, 449.
ZAPOTECA, 409.
Zoe, 401.
Zoques,409.
Zulus, 490.
Zuni (Soones), 395.
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